Ba'athist Syria

Syrian Arab Republic
اَلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة (Arabic)
*al-Jumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-Sūriyyah*
Syrian Arab Republic اَلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة (Arabic); al-Jumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-Sūriyyah
1963–2024
	Flag; (1980–2024) Coat of arms; (1980–2024)
	Motto: وَحْدَةٌ، حُرِّيَّةٌ، اِشْتِرَاكِيَّةٌ; Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya; "Unity, Freedom, Socialism"
	Anthem: حُمَاةَ الدَّيَّارِ; Ḥumāt ad-Diyār; "Guardians of the Homeland"
	; Location of Syria Syria's claim over most of Hatay Province and the Israeli-occupied territories
Capital and largest city	Damascus; 33°30′N 36°18′E / 33.500°N 36.300°E
Official languages	Arabic
Ethnic groups	80–90% Arabs; 9–10% Kurds ; 1–10% others
Religion	87% Islam 74% Sunni Islam; 13% Alawism and other Shia Islam; ; 10% Christianity; 3% Druze;
Demonym(s)	Syrian
Government	Unitary Neo-Ba'athist one-party presidential republic under a totalitarian military dictatorship (1963–1971); under a totalitarian Assadist hereditary dictatorship ; (1971–2024);
President
• 1963 (first)	Lu'ay al-Atassi
• 1963–1966	Amin al-Hafiz
• 1966–1970	Nureddin al-Atassi
• 1970–1971	Ahmad al-Khatib (acting)
• 1971–2000	Hafez al-Assad
• 2000	Abdul Halim Khaddam (acting)
• 2000–2024 (last)	Bashar al-Assad
Prime Minister
• 1963 (first)	Khalid al-Azm
• 2024 (last)	Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali
Vice President
• 1963–1964 (first)	Muhammad Umran
• 2006–2024 (last)	Najah al-Attar
• 2024 (last)	Faisal Mekdad
Legislature	People's Assembly
Historical era	Cold War; Arab Cold War; Post–Cold War; War on Terror; Arab Spring; Arab Winter;
• Ba'athist coup	8 March 1963
• Neo-Ba'athist coup	21–23 February 1966
• Six-Day War	5–10 June 1967
• Assadist coup	13–16 November 1970
• Yom Kippur War	6–25 October 1973
• Occupation of; Lebanon began	1 June 1976
• Islamist uprising	1976–1982
• Damascus Spring	2000–2001
• Withdrawal; from Lebanon	30 April 2005
• Civil war began	15 March 2011
• New constitution	26 February 2012
• Fall of Damascus	8 December 2024
Area
• Total	185,180 km2 (71,500 sq mi) (87th)
• Water (%)	1.1
Population
• 2024 estimate	25,000,753
• Density	118.3/km2 (306.4/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	2015 estimate
• Total	$50.28 billion
• Per capita	$2,900
GDP (nominal)	2020 estimate
• Total	$11.08 billion
• Per capita	$533
Gini (2022)	26.6; low
HDI (2022)	0.557; medium
Currency	Syrian pound (SYP)
Time zone	UTC+3 (Arabia Standard Time)
Driving side	right
Calling code	+963
ISO 3166 code	SY
Internet TLD	.sy; سوريا.
Preceded by	Succeeded by
	Second Syrian Republic
Syria

Ba'athist Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR),^[a] was the Syrian state between 1963 and 2024 under the one-party rule of the Syrian regional branch of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. From 1971 until its collapse in 2024, it was ruled by the Assad family, and was therefore commonly referred to as the Assad regime.

Flags and coat of arms

Flag of Ba'athist Syria
(1963–1972)
Flag of Ba'athist Syria in the Federation of Arab Republics and after
(1972–1980)
Flag of Ba'athist Syria
(1980–2024)

Coat of arms of Ba'athist Syria
(1963–1972)
Coat of arms of Ba'athist Syria in the Federation of Arab Republics
(1972–1980)
Coat of arms of Ba'athist Syria
(1980–2024)

Related pages

Notes

↑ Arabic: اَلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة, romanized: al-Jumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-Sūriyyah

References

↑ "Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic – 2012" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 November 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2020.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 "Syria: People and society". The World Factbook. CIA. 10 May 2022. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
↑ "Syria (10/03)". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 22 November 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
↑ "Syria's Religious, Ethnic Groups". 20 December 2012. Archived from the original on 8 December 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
↑ Khalifa, Mustafa (2013), "The impossible partition of Syria", Arab Reform Initiative: 3–5, archived from the original on 9 October 2016, retrieved 12 March 2025
↑ Shoup, John A. (2018), The History of Syria, ABC-CLIO, p. 6, ISBN 978-1440858352, Syria has several other ethnic groups, the Kurds... they make up an estimated 9 percent...Turkomen comprise around 4–5 percent of the total population. The rest of the ethnic mix of Syria is made of Assyrians (about 4 percent), Armenians (about 2 percent), and Circassians (about 1 percent).
↑
Sources:
- Shively, W. Phillips; Schultz, David (2022). "7: Democracies and Authoritarian System". Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 188. ISBN 9781538151860.
- Derbyshire, J. Denis; Derbyshire, Ian (2016). "Syria". Encyclopedia of World Political Systems. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 610. ISBN 978-0-7656-8025-9.
- Mira, Rachid (2025). Political Economy in the Middle East and North Africa. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 273, 274. ISBN 978-1-032-21214-2.
- Jones, Jeremy (2007). "4. Syria and Lebanon: Party Problems". Negotiating Change: The New Politics of the Middle East. New York, NY: I.B. Tauris. pp. 96–102. ISBN 978-1-84511-269-1.
- Roberts Clark, Golder, Nadenichek Golder, William, Matt, Sona, ed. (2013). "14. Social Cleavages and Party Systems". Principles of Comparative Politics (2nd ed.). US: Sage Publishing. p. 611. ISBN 978-1-60871-679-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
↑
- "Syrian Arab Republic". Federal Foreign Office. 13 January 2023. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. System of government: Officially a socialist,... democratic state; presidential system (ruled by the al-Assad family, with the security services occupying a powerful position)
- "Syria: Government". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021.
- "Syria Government". Archived from the original on 27 January 2023.
- "Syrian Arab Republic: Constitution, 2012". refworld. 26 February 2021. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019.
↑
Sources:
- Wieland, Carsten (2018). Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.
- Kassam, Kamal; Becker, Maria (16 May 2023). "Syrians of today, Germans of tomorrow: the effect of initial placement on the political interest of Syrian refugees in Germany". Frontiers in Political Science. 5: 2, 3. doi:10.3389/fpos.2023.1100446.
- Meininghaus, Esther (2016). Creating Consent in Ba'thist Syria: Women and Welfare in a Totalitarian State. I.B. Tauris. pp. 32, 69. ISBN 978-1-78453-115-7.
- Mira, Rachid (2025). Political Economy in the Middle East and North Africa. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 273. ISBN 978-1-032-21214-2.
- "Inside the house of Assad". The Week. December 2024. Archived from the original on 22 December 2024.
↑
Sources:
- Thompson, Elizabeth (2013). Justice Interrupted. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 209, 227. ISBN 978-0-674-07313-5.
- F. Nyrop, Richard, ed. (1979). Syria: A Country Study (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: The American University. pp. 34–37. LCCN 79607771.
- Galvani, John (February 1974). "Syria and the Baath Party". MERIP Reports (25): 6–9. doi:10.2307/3011567. JSTOR 3011567. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2024.
- Ben-Tzur, Avraham (1968). "The Neo-Ba'th Party of Syria". Journal of Contemporary History. 3 (3): 164–166, 172–181. doi:10.1177/002200946800300310. S2CID 159345006. It was some years before the all-Arab leadership was forced to reveal the bitter truth that the structure of the new Ba'th Party in Syria had been 'artificial' from the outset, and that since its rise to power in 1963 it had been based on 'elements that served the purpose of the governmental centres represented by the Military Committee. ... The Marxist left was quick to exploit the opportunities offered in the first few months of Ba'th rule... to engineer the elections to the regional conference (the first since the party's rise to power) to their own ends. The conference, held in September 1963,... set out the new party platform, which was to become the credo of the neo-Ba'th. ... In short, the Ba'th in its latest variant is a bureaucratic apparatus headed by the military, whose daily life and routine are shaped by rigid military oppression on the home front, and military aid from abroad.
↑
- Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's 'Cyberwars': Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-19-976441-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.
- Ahmed, Saladdin (2019). Totalitarian Space and the Destruction of Aura. Albany, NY: Suny Press. pp. 144, 149. ISBN 9781438472911.
- Hensman, Rohini (2018). "7: The Syrian Uprising". Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-912-3.
↑ "Syrian ministry of foreign affairs". Archived from the original on 11 May 2012.
↑ "Syria Population". World of Meters.info. Archived from the original on 21 December 2023. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
↑ ^14.0 ^14.1 ^14.2 "Syria". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
↑ "World Bank GINI index". World Bank. Archived from the original on 9 February 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2013.
↑ "Human Development Report 2023–24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. pp. 274–277. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.

[17] Arabic: اَلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة, romanized: al-Jumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-Sūriyyah

[1] "Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic – 2012" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 November 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2020.

[CIA_-_The_World_Factbook-2] 2.0 ^2.1 "Syria: People and society". The World Factbook. CIA. 10 May 2022. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.

[3] "Syria (10/03)". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 22 November 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2024.

[4] "Syria's Religious, Ethnic Groups". 20 December 2012. Archived from the original on 8 December 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2024.

[Khalifa2013-5] Khalifa, Mustafa (2013), "The impossible partition of Syria", Arab Reform Initiative: 3–5, archived from the original on 9 October 2016, retrieved 12 March 2025

[Shoup-6] Shoup, John A. (2018), The History of Syria, ABC-CLIO, p. 6, ISBN 978-1440858352, Syria has several other ethnic groups, the Kurds... they make up an estimated 9 percent...Turkomen comprise around 4–5 percent of the total population. The rest of the ethnic mix of Syria is made of Assyrians (about 4 percent), Armenians (about 2 percent), and Circassians (about 1 percent).

[7] Sources:
Shively, W. Phillips; Schultz, David (2022). "7: Democracies and Authoritarian System". Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 188. ISBN 9781538151860.

Derbyshire, J. Denis; Derbyshire, Ian (2016). "Syria". Encyclopedia of World Political Systems. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 610. ISBN 978-0-7656-8025-9.

Mira, Rachid (2025). Political Economy in the Middle East and North Africa. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 273, 274. ISBN 978-1-032-21214-2.

Jones, Jeremy (2007). "4. Syria and Lebanon: Party Problems". Negotiating Change: The New Politics of the Middle East. New York, NY: I.B. Tauris. pp. 96–102. ISBN 978-1-84511-269-1.

Roberts Clark, Golder, Nadenichek Golder, William, Matt, Sona, ed. (2013). "14. Social Cleavages and Party Systems". Principles of Comparative Politics (2nd ed.). US: Sage Publishing. p. 611. ISBN 978-1-60871-679-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)

[9] Shively, W. Phillips; Schultz, David (2022). "7: Democracies and Authoritarian System". Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 188. ISBN 9781538151860.

[10] Derbyshire, J. Denis; Derbyshire, Ian (2016). "Syria". Encyclopedia of World Political Systems. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 610. ISBN 978-0-7656-8025-9.

[11] Mira, Rachid (2025). Political Economy in the Middle East and North Africa. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 273, 274. ISBN 978-1-032-21214-2.

[12] Jones, Jeremy (2007). "4. Syria and Lebanon: Party Problems". Negotiating Change: The New Politics of the Middle East. New York, NY: I.B. Tauris. pp. 96–102. ISBN 978-1-84511-269-1.

[13] Roberts Clark, Golder, Nadenichek Golder, William, Matt, Sona, ed. (2013). "14. Social Cleavages and Party Systems". Principles of Comparative Politics (2nd ed.). US: Sage Publishing. p. 611. ISBN 978-1-60871-679-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)

[8] 
"Syrian Arab Republic". Federal Foreign Office. 13 January 2023. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. System of government: Officially a socialist,... democratic state; presidential system (ruled by the al-Assad family, with the security services occupying a powerful position)
"Syria: Government". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021.
"Syria Government". Archived from the original on 27 January 2023.
"Syrian Arab Republic: Constitution, 2012". refworld. 26 February 2021. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019.

[15] "Syrian Arab Republic". Federal Foreign Office. 13 January 2023. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. System of government: Officially a socialist,... democratic state; presidential system (ruled by the al-Assad family, with the security services occupying a powerful position)

[16] "Syria: Government". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021.

[17] "Syria Government". Archived from the original on 27 January 2023.

[18] "Syrian Arab Republic: Constitution, 2012". refworld. 26 February 2021. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019.

[9] Sources:
Wieland, Carsten (2018). Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.

Kassam, Kamal; Becker, Maria (16 May 2023). "Syrians of today, Germans of tomorrow: the effect of initial placement on the political interest of Syrian refugees in Germany". Frontiers in Political Science. 5: 2, 3. doi:10.3389/fpos.2023.1100446.

Meininghaus, Esther (2016). Creating Consent in Ba'thist Syria: Women and Welfare in a Totalitarian State. I.B. Tauris. pp. 32, 69. ISBN 978-1-78453-115-7.

Mira, Rachid (2025). Political Economy in the Middle East and North Africa. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 273. ISBN 978-1-032-21214-2.

"Inside the house of Assad". The Week. December 2024. Archived from the original on 22 December 2024.

[20] Wieland, Carsten (2018). Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.

[21] Kassam, Kamal; Becker, Maria (16 May 2023). "Syrians of today, Germans of tomorrow: the effect of initial placement on the political interest of Syrian refugees in Germany". Frontiers in Political Science. 5: 2, 3. doi:10.3389/fpos.2023.1100446.

[22] Meininghaus, Esther (2016). Creating Consent in Ba'thist Syria: Women and Welfare in a Totalitarian State. I.B. Tauris. pp. 32, 69. ISBN 978-1-78453-115-7.

[23] Mira, Rachid (2025). Political Economy in the Middle East and North Africa. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 273. ISBN 978-1-032-21214-2.

[24] "Inside the house of Assad". The Week. December 2024. Archived from the original on 22 December 2024.

[10] Sources:
Thompson, Elizabeth (2013). Justice Interrupted. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 209, 227. ISBN 978-0-674-07313-5.

F. Nyrop, Richard, ed. (1979). Syria: A Country Study (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: The American University. pp. 34–37. LCCN 79607771.

Galvani, John (February 1974). "Syria and the Baath Party". MERIP Reports (25): 6–9. doi:10.2307/3011567. JSTOR 3011567. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2024.

Ben-Tzur, Avraham (1968). "The Neo-Ba'th Party of Syria". Journal of Contemporary History. 3 (3): 164–166, 172–181. doi:10.1177/002200946800300310. S2CID 159345006. It was some years before the all-Arab leadership was forced to reveal the bitter truth that the structure of the new Ba'th Party in Syria had been 'artificial' from the outset, and that since its rise to power in 1963 it had been based on 'elements that served the purpose of the governmental centres represented by the Military Committee. ... The Marxist left was quick to exploit the opportunities offered in the first few months of Ba'th rule... to engineer the elections to the regional conference (the first since the party's rise to power) to their own ends. The conference, held in September 1963,... set out the new party platform, which was to become the credo of the neo-Ba'th. ... In short, the Ba'th in its latest variant is a bureaucratic apparatus headed by the military, whose daily life and routine are shaped by rigid military oppression on the home front, and military aid from abroad.

[26] Thompson, Elizabeth (2013). Justice Interrupted. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 209, 227. ISBN 978-0-674-07313-5.

[27] F. Nyrop, Richard, ed. (1979). Syria: A Country Study (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: The American University. pp. 34–37. LCCN 79607771.

[28] Galvani, John (February 1974). "Syria and the Baath Party". MERIP Reports (25): 6–9. doi:10.2307/3011567. JSTOR 3011567. Archived from the original on 4 November 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2024.

[29] Ben-Tzur, Avraham (1968). "The Neo-Ba'th Party of Syria". Journal of Contemporary History. 3 (3): 164–166, 172–181. doi:10.1177/002200946800300310. S2CID 159345006. It was some years before the all-Arab leadership was forced to reveal the bitter truth that the structure of the new Ba'th Party in Syria had been 'artificial' from the outset, and that since its rise to power in 1963 it had been based on 'elements that served the purpose of the governmental centres represented by the Military Committee. ... The Marxist left was quick to exploit the opportunities offered in the first few months of Ba'th rule... to engineer the elections to the regional conference (the first since the party's rise to power) to their own ends. The conference, held in September 1963,... set out the new party platform, which was to become the credo of the neo-Ba'th. ... In short, the Ba'th in its latest variant is a bureaucratic apparatus headed by the military, whose daily life and routine are shaped by rigid military oppression on the home front, and military aid from abroad.

[11] 
Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's 'Cyberwars': Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-19-976441-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.
Ahmed, Saladdin (2019). Totalitarian Space and the Destruction of Aura. Albany, NY: Suny Press. pp. 144, 149. ISBN 9781438472911.
Hensman, Rohini (2018). "7: The Syrian Uprising". Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-912-3.

[31] Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's 'Cyberwars': Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-19-976441-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[32] Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.

[33] Ahmed, Saladdin (2019). Totalitarian Space and the Destruction of Aura. Albany, NY: Suny Press. pp. 144, 149. ISBN 9781438472911.

[34] Hensman, Rohini (2018). "7: The Syrian Uprising". Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-912-3.

[12] "Syrian ministry of foreign affairs". Archived from the original on 11 May 2012.

[13] "Syria Population". World of Meters.info. Archived from the original on 21 December 2023. Retrieved 6 November 2024.

[CIA-14] 14.0 ^14.1 ^14.2 "Syria". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 7 April 2021.

[15] "World Bank GINI index". World Bank. Archived from the original on 9 February 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2013.

[16] "Human Development Report 2023–24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. pp. 274–277. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.

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