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Mu'tazila

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The Mu'tazila (Arabic: المعتزلة, romanized: al-muʿtazila) was an Islamic school of speculative theology (kalam) that flourished primarily during the Abbasid Caliphate, specifically from the early 9th century through the mid-10th century CE. Followers of Mu'tazilism were known as Mu'tazilites or by their self-designated name, Ahl al-Tawhid wal 'Adl (The People of Monotheism and Justice).[1][2]

An imaginary sketch representing Wasil ibn Ata, founder of the Mu'tazila school[3][4]

Mu'tazilism was founded by Wasil ibn Ata (d. 748 CE) in Basra, Iraq, who "separated" (made i'tizal) from Hasan al-Basri (d. 728 CE) over a theological dispute regarding the status of a fasiq.[5][4] Mu'tazilites were the first Muslims to use the categories and methods of Hellenistic philosophy to derive their major and distinctive dogmatic points, utilising rationalist, dialectic, and Ancient Greek philosophical tools to interpret Islamic doctrines.[6][7][8][9][10]

Mu'tazilite beliefs

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The Mu'tazila school developed significantly in Basra and later Baghdad. The five major points of the school were Divine Unity (al-Tawhid) which denied all anthropomorphic interpretations of God, Divine Justice (al-Adl) meaning humans have free will and are responsible for their actions, the doctrine of the promise and the threat (al-Wa'd wa al-Wa'id) asserting that God will inevitably reward the righteous and punish the wicked as promised, the concept of an intermediate position (al-Manzilah bayna al-Manzilatayn) for a fasiq who is considered neither a complete believer nor an unbeliever, and the obligation of enjoining good and forbidding wrong (al-Amr bi al-Ma'ruf wa al-Nahy 'an al-Munkar) which they interpreted to include the right to an armed revolt against an unjust state.[11][12][13][14][15][16]

The Mu'tazilites are best known for their belief that the Qur'an is God's "created" word, instead of pre-existing with God himself since eternity.[17][18] This went against a common Sunni position which argued that with God being all-knowing, his knowledge of the Qur'an must have been eternal, hence uncreated just like him.[18][19]

The Mu'tazila believed that reason ('aql) and revelation were complementary, with reason serving as the primary tool for interpreting scripture. If a literal reading of a text conflicted with rational understanding, a metaphorical interpretation (ta'wil) was preferred.[20][21] The Mu'tazila opposed secular rationalism but defended ethical objectivism, believing that divine commands, revealed as Sharia, educated Muslims about objective ethical values that were already in the nature of things and knowable to human reason.[11][22][23][24][25][26][27]

In matters of philosophy, the Mu'tazila differed from the Falasifa who, although influenced by Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism, constructed comprehensive metaphysical systems often independent of theological scripture.[28] In matters of faith, the Mu'tazila were pitted against Ahl al-Hadith, superheaded by the Hanbalites.

The political positions of the Mu'tazila included support for early Uthmani (pro-Uthman) traditions and, later, close ties with Shia doctrine.[29] 

Political rise

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In matters of faith, the Mu'tazila were pitted against Ahl al-Hadith, superheaded by the Hanbalites. The conflict between the two schools peaked during the Abbasid Caliphate when the caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813-833 CE) instituted the "mihna", a period of religious persecution where Sunni scholars[30] were punished, imprisoned, or even killed unless they conformed to Mu'tazila doctrine. The mihna continued through the reigns of al-Mu'tasim (r. 833-842 CE) and al-Wathiq (r. 842-847 CE), and four years of al-Mutawakkil (r. 847-861 CE) who reversed it in 851 CE.[31][32]

Mu'tazilites continued to be well established in many other centres of Islamic learning, especially in Persia, and had split into two rival factions, the "Basran" and "Baghdad" schools. The Aghlabids (800-909 CE) also adhered to Mu'tazilism, which they imposed as the state doctrine of Ifriqiya.[33] Mu'tazilites also resided in the region south of the Barghawata, in present-day Morocco.[34] Similarly, the leading elite figures of the Graeco-Arabic translation movement during the reign of the Umayyad caliph of Córdoba al-Hakam II (r. 961-976 CE) were followers of the Mu'tazila.[35] Mu'tazilism also flourished to some extent during the rule of the Buyids (934-1062 CE) in Iraq and Persia.[36] From the 9th to 12th centuries CE, Mu'tazilism significantly influenced Karaite Judaism.[37]

Decline

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From the late 9th century CE onwards, the decline of the Mu'tazila was caused by a combination of political, social, and theological factors, notably culminating in the declaration of the Qadiri Creed in 1017 CE, which was instrumental in removing Mu'tazilite influence from the public sphere in Abbasid lands.[38] In Central Asia, Mu'tazilite theology continued to flourish under the Khwarazmshah's up to the beginning of the 13th century CE.[39] By the time of the Mongol invasions in the 13th century CE, Mu'tazilite schools had disappeared, although Mu'tazilite doctrine ultimately persisted, especially among the Shia in Persia and in Yemen among the Zaydis, which led to the preserving of many important Mu'tazilite theological sources.[40]

Modern legacy

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In the modern period, Mu'tazilite thought has seen a revival in the form of Neo-Mu'tazilism, which stands in relation to the "renaissance" (Nahda) of the Arab world and to Islamic modernism.[41] Neo-Mu'tazilism has developed in various regions, such as in the Maghreb, Turkey, Iran, France, India, and Indonesia.[42][43][44][45][46][47] Mu'tazilism has influenced the Neo-Mu'tazila literary approach to the interpretation of the Qur'an through an emphasis on metaphoric interpretation and using reason to interpret texts. It has also influenced Quranism primarily through its skeptical approach to Hadith.[48][49][50]

See also

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References

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  1. ↑ https://www.ias.edu/ideas/2017/schmidtke-rational-theology
  2. ↑ https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/hmp/13.htm
  3. ↑ Ellwood, Robert S.; McGraw, Barbara A. (30 September 2022). Many Peoples, Many Faiths: Women and Men in the World Religions. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780429844584.
  4. 1 2 "Wāṣil ibn ʿAṭāʾ | Arabic Scholar, Islamic Scholar, Philosopher | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-01-01. Retrieved 2024-02-14.
  5. ↑ Ellwood, Robert S.; McGraw, Barbara A. (30 September 2022). Many Peoples, Many Faiths: Women and Men in the World Religions. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780429844584.
  6. ↑ https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/greek-philosophy-impact-on-islamic-philosophy/v-1
  7. ↑ "Muʿtazilah Archived 2018-06-21 at the Wayback Machine", Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  8. ↑ NEAL ROBINSON (1998). "Ash'ariyya and Mu'tazila". muslimphilosophy.com. Archived from the original on 2011-11-20. Retrieved 2012-11-05.
  9. ↑ "Different views on human freedom – Mu'tazilites and Asharites – Authority in Islam – GCSE Religious Studies Revision – OCR". BBC Bitesize. Archived from the original on 2021-06-21. Retrieved 2021-06-19.
  10. ↑ https://scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0259-94222022000400036
  11. 1 2 Fakhry, Majid (1983). A History of Islamic Philosophy (second ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. p. 47. The early Muslim theologians had naturally been unanimous in denying that God could be unjust, but the problem of reconciling the justice of God and the glaring reality of evil in the world does not appear to have disturbed them particularly. And it was precisely this problem that became, from Wasil's time on the crucial issue with which the Muʿtazilah and their adversaries grappled.... [According to the Muʿtazila,] good and evil are not conventional or arbitrary concepts whose validity is rooted in the dictates of God, as the Traditionists and later the Ashʿarites held, but are rational categories which can be established through unaided reason
  12. ↑ Al-Shahrastani, al-Milal, p.31 f
  13. ↑ Al-Baghdadi, Usul al Din, pp.150f
  14. ↑ Fakhry, Majid (1983). A History of Islamic Philosophy (second ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. p. 46. Almost all authorities agree that the speculation of the Muʿtazilah centers around the two crucial concepts of divine justice and unity, of which they claim to be the exclusive, genuine exponents.
  15. ↑ https://qantara.de/en/article/islam%E2%80%99s-conscientious-thinkers-people-reason-vs-people-hadith
  16. ↑ Campanini, Massimo (2012). "The Mu'tazila in Islamic History and Thought". Religion Compass. 6: 41–50. doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2011.00273.x. Archived from the original on 2021-07-19. Retrieved 2021-01-09.
  17. ↑ Abdullah Saeed. The Qur'an: an introduction. 2008, page 203
  18. 1 2 Kadri, Sadakat (2012). Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia to the Streets of the Modern Muslim World. macmillan. p. 77. ISBN 9780099523277. Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2015-09-16.
  19. ↑ Watt, W. Montgomery (1985). Islamic philosophy and theology : an extended survey. Edinburgh. ISBN 0-85224-487-8. OCLC 13360530.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  20. ↑ https://www.newageislam.com/debating-islam/m-basheer-ahmed-new-age-islam/the-theology-mutazilites-asharites-reason-revelation-complementary/d/137841
  21. ↑ Arberry, A.J. (2007). Revelation and Reason in Islam. New York: Routledge. pp. 104–108. ISBN 978-0415438872.
  22. ↑ Al-Baghdadi, A.Q.,Usul al Din, Istanbul, 1928, pp.26f
  23. ↑ Al-Shahrastani, M.,al-Milal wa'l-Nihal, London, 1892, p.31
  24. ↑ al-Ash'ari, Maqalat, p.356
  25. ↑ Oussama Arabi. Studies in Modern Islamic Law and Jurisprudence. page 27–28
  26. ↑ https://www.newageislam.com/debating-islam/va-mohamad-ashrof-new-age-islam/faith-reason-early-islam-lessons-mutazila-debate/d/133741#:~:text=of%20NewAgeIslam.com-,Total%20Comments%20(1),I%20fully%20agree.
  27. ↑ https://www.cato.org/commentary/early-islamic-debate-faith-reason-worth-examining#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20the%20Mutazila%20opposed,none%20other%20than%20the%20Quran.)
  28. ↑ https://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/jc49.2007/lauraMarks/2.html
  29. ↑ https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/medieval-islamic-political-thought/mutazilites/4C560820DE918640DDD7FEE24FE55240
  30. ↑ "The Baghdad Manifesto (402 AH / 1011 CE) - A Re-Examination of Fatimid-Abbasid Rivalry" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-02-26.
  31. ↑ Muhammad Qasim Zaman (1997). Religion and Politics Under the Early ?Abbasids: The Emergence of the Proto-Sunni Elite. BRILL. pp. 106–112. ISBN 978-90-04-10678-9. Archived from the original on 2019-12-17. Retrieved 2019-05-03.
  32. ↑ Archived 2021-06-14 at the Wayback Machine (PDF)
  33. ↑ Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 57. ISBN 0521337674.
  34. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD0sBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81&dq=Mu%27tazila,+Barghaw%C4%81ta&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-_8aN3bmSAxUM5wIHHcndOQIQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  35. ↑ Julio Samsó; Maribel Fierro (23 October 2019). "&pg=PR27 The Formation of al-Andalus, Part 2: Language, Religion, Culture and the Sciences. Taylor & Francis. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-351-88957-5. Archived from the original on 14 October 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
  36. ↑ "The People of Monotheism and Justice: Muʿtazilism in Islam and Judaism" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-08-30. Retrieved 2020-10-29.
  37. ↑ https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/J052.htm
  38. ↑ https://qantara.de/en/article/islam%E2%80%99s-conscientious-thinkers-people-reason-vs-people-hadith
  39. ↑ https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mutazilah
  40. ↑ https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H052
  41. ↑ Neuwirth, Angelika; Pflitsch, Andreas (1998). Crisis and Memory in Islamic Societies: Proceedings of the Third Summer Academy of the Working Group Modernity and Islam Held at the Orient Institute of the German Oriental Society in Beirut. Ergon Verlag in Kommission. ISBN 978-3-515-07510-7.
  42. ↑ Byrd, Anthony Robert (27 November 2007). A Euro-American 'Ulama? Mu 'tazilism, (Post)Modernity, and Minority Islam. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
  43. ↑ Van Ess, Joseph (2005). Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillian Reference USA. p. 6322.
  44. ↑ https://shs.cairn.info/journal-etudes-2023-5-page-83?lang=en
  45. ↑ "Mutazilisme". mutazilisme.fr (in French). Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
  46. ↑ https://mrmo.org/islamic-reformers/sayyid-ahmad-khan/
  47. ↑ Harun Nasution, "The Mu'tazila and Rational Philosophy' translated in Defenders of Reason in Islam by Martin et al., pp.191-92.
  48. ↑ Jafarli, D. "The rise of the quranist movement in Egypt (19th to 20th ctnturies): a historical approach." Гілея: науковий вісник 126 (2017): 181-185.
  49. ↑ Kersten, Carool (17 June 2019). Contemporary Thought in the Muslim World: Trends, Themes, and Issues - Carool Kersten - Google Books. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-00893-2. Retrieved 2025-06-28.
  50. ↑ Bihishtī, Nargis (January 2021). "The Similarities and Differences Between Mu'tazila and Neo-Mu'tazila Literary Approaches to the Qur'ān". Classical and Contemporary Islamic Studies. 3 (1): 85–97.


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