Shaktism

Shaktism is a goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism - relief statues of Matrikas: from left to right Vaishnavi, Varahi, Indrani, and Chamunda

Shaktism (/ˈsæktɪzəm/; Sanskrit: शाक्तसम्प्रदायः, romanized: Śāktasampradāyaḥ; Ṣakta) is a major Hindu denomination in which the deity or metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically to be a woman.

Shaktism is a branch of Hinduism that celebrates the divine feminine energy, known as Shakti, through the worship of many goddesses. Each goddess is seen as a manifestation of Shakti, including Durga, the protector; Parvati, the nurturing mother; and Kali, the fierce destroyer of evil. After Buddhism declined in India, elements of Hindu and Buddhist goddesses were combined into the Mahavidya, a group of ten powerful goddesses. The most commonly worshipped forms of the great goddess, or Mahadevi, in Shaktism are Durga, Kali, Saraswati (goddess of wisdom), Lakshmi (goddess of prosperity), Parvati, and Tripura Sundari (goddess of beauty and perfection). Additionally, village goddesses, known as Gramadevatas, are widely worshipped in local communities.

Shaktism includes several tantric traditions, such as Vidyapitha and Kulamārga. It highlights the idea that deep love for the deity is more important than simple obedience, drawing inspiration from the Vaishnava concept of the passionate relationship between Radha and Krishna as an ideal emotional state (bhava). Shaktism has also influenced other Hindu traditions, like Vaishnavism and Shaivism. In Shaktism, the goddess is seen as the divine energy (shakti) of the gods Vishnu and Shiva. Vishnu's energy is called Vaishnavi, and Shiva's is called Maheshvari. They are represented by their consorts: Lakshmi for Vishnu and Sati or Parvati for Shiva. Followers of Shaktism are known as Shaktas.

According to the World Religion Database, Shaktism was the third largest Hindu sect in 2020, with approximately 305 million adherents worldwide.

Shaktism relies on key Hindu scriptures, including Sruti and Smriti texts. Important ones are the Devi Mahatmya, Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Kalika Purana, and Shakta Upanishads like the Devi Upanishad. The Devi Mahatmya is especially significant in Shaktism, akin to the Bhagavad Gita.

The goddess (Devi) is deeply revered in Hindu temples and celebrated in many festivals. Traditions honoring the goddess, such as Durga Puja, are especially popular in eastern India.

Origins and history

The earliest known archaeological evidence of Shakti worship was found at the Upper Paleolithic site of Baghor I, located in Sidhi district, Madhya Pradesh, India. The Baghor stone, believed to be part of a shrine, dates back to between 9000 BC and 8000 BC. The discovery was made during excavations led by archaeologists G. R. Sharma, J. Desmond Clark, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, and J. N. Pal. Additionally, the roots of Shakti worship can be traced to the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Among the earliest evidence of reverence for the female aspect of the deity in Hinduism is this passage in chapter 10.125 of the Rig Veda, also called the Devi Suktam hymn:

I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship.

Thus Gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in. Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken. They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it. I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that Gods and men alike shall welcome. I make the man I love exceeding mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman. I bend the bow for Rudra [Shiva], that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion. I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller. On the world's summit I bring forth sky the Father: my home is in the waters, in the ocean as Mother. Thence I pervade all existing creatures, as their Inner Supreme Self, and manifest them with my body. I created all worlds at my will, without any higher being, and permeate and dwell within them.

The eternal and infinite consciousness is I, it is my greatness dwelling in everything.

— Devi Sukta, Rigveda 10.125.3 – 10.125.8,

The Vedic literature reveres various goddesses, but far less frequently than the gods Indra, Agni and Soma. Yet, they are declared equivalent aspects of the neutral Brahman, of Prajapati and Purusha. The goddesses often mentioned in the Vedic layers of text include the Ushas (dawn), Vāc (speech, wisdom), Sarasvati (as river), Prithivi (earth), Nirriti (annihilator), Shraddha (faith, confidence). Goddesses such as Uma appear in the Upanishads as another aspect of divine and the knower of ultimate knowledge (Brahman), such as in section 3 and 4 of the ancient Kena Upanishad.

Theology

 Shaktas believe the goddess as the supreme, ultimate, eternal reality of all existence, or same as the Brahman concept of Hinduism. She is considered to be simultaneously the source of all creation, its embodiment and the energy that animates and governs it, and that into which everything will ultimately dissolve. Mahadevi said in Devi Upanishad, verse 2, "I am essentially Brahman". According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar – a professor of Indian history, in Shaktism theology "Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman."

Shaktism views the Devi as the source, essence, and substance of everything in creation. Its texts such as the Devi-Bhagavata Purana states:

I am Manifest Divinity, Unmanifest Divinity, and Transcendent Divinity. I am Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, as well as Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. I am the Sun and I am the Stars, and I am also the Moon. I am all animals and birds, and I am the outcaste as well, and the thief. I am the low person of dreadful deeds, and the great person of excellent deeds. I am Female, I am Male in the form of Shiva.

Shaktism embraces the Divine Female without rejecting the male, viewing both as interconnected and essential. It opposes dualities like masculine-feminine, male-female, soul-body, and transcendent-immanent, instead considering nature to be divine and unified. Devi, the goddess, is seen as the cosmos itself—she represents energy, matter, and soul, driving all existence and action in the universe.

According to scholar C. MacKenzie Brown, practitioners of Shaktism view masculine and feminine cultural concepts as reflections of a divine, transcendent reality. This unity is beautifully illustrated in Hindu iconography through Ardhanari, a deity that is half-Shakti (goddess) and half-Shiva (god), symbolizing the perfect balance and interdependence of male and female energies.

In Shakta theology, the female and male are interdependent realities, represented with Ardhanarishvara icon. Left: A 5th century art work representing this idea at the Elephanta Caves; Right: a painting of Ardhanarishvara.

The philosophical premise in many Shakta texts, states professor of Religious Studies June McDaniel, is syncretism of Samkhya and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy, called Shaktadavaitavada (literally, the path of nondualistic Shakti).

Swami Vivekananda described a true Shakti worshipper as someone who sees God as the omnipresent force and recognizes women as manifestations of this divine force. Sri Ramakrishna, a prominent figure in Hindu reform movements, believed that all Hindu goddesses represent the same universal mother goddess. In the 18th century, Shakta bhakti poems and songs were created by Bengal poets Bharatchandra Ray and Ramprasad Sen, while the Tamil collection Abhirami Anthadhi was composed by Abhirami Bhattar.

Scriptures

Shaktism's important scriptures include the Shakta Upanishads, as well as Shakta-oriented Upa Puranic texts such as the Devi Purana and Kalika Purana. The Lalita Sahasranama from the Brahmanda Purana is also highly regarded. Among the foundational texts of Shakta Tantrism is the Tripura Upanishad, which concisely covers key topics of Shakta Tantra in its 16 verses. Another key text, the Tripuratapini Upanishad, inspired notable commentaries during the second half of the 2nd millennium, including works by Bhaskararaya and Ramanand.

While some scholars have debated the connection between Shakti Tantra traditions and Vedic principles, other key texts like the Devi Mahatmya, Devi-Bhagavata Purana, and Kalika Purana remain central to Shaktism. The Devi Gita is another cherished scripture within this tradition.

Devi Gita

The seventh book of the Srimad Devi-Bhagavatam presents the theology of Shaktism. This book is called Devi Gita, or the "Song of the Goddess". The goddess explains she is the Brahman that created the world, asserting the Advaita premise that spiritual liberation occurs when one fully comprehends the identity of one's soul and the Brahman. This knowledge, asserts the goddess, comes from detaching self from the world and meditating on one's own soul.

The soul and the Goddess

My sacred syllable ह्रीम्] transcends,
the distinction of name and named,
beyond all dualities.
It is whole, infinite being, consciousness and bliss.
One should meditate on that reality,
within the flaming light of consciousness.
Fixing the mind upon me,
as the Goddess transcending all space and time,
One quickly merges with me by realizing,
the oneness of the soul and Brahman.

List of 8 Shakta Upanishads

List of the Shakta Upanishads according to Muktikā anthology

Title	Muktika serial #	Attached Veda	Period of creation
Sita Upanishad	45	Atharva Veda	At least 10,000 Years Before
Tripuratapini Upanishad	80	Atharva Veda	At least 10,000 Years Before
Devi Upanishad	81	Atharva Veda	At least 10,000 Years Before
Tripura Upanishad	82	Rigveda	At least 10,000 Years Before
Bhavana Upanishad	84	Atharva Veda	At least 10,000 Years Before
Saubhagyalakshmi Upanishad	105	Rigveda	Unknown
Sarasvati-rahasya Upanishad	106	Krishna Yajurveda	At least 10,000 Years Before
Bahvricha Upanishad	107	Rigveda	At least 10,000 Years Before

Principal deities

Shaktas worship the goddess (Devi) in many forms, all seen as different aspects of the one supreme goddess. A Shakta devotee typically worships an ishta-devi, a personally chosen goddess. The choice of ishta-devi can be influenced by factors like family traditions, regional customs, the teachings of a guru, or personal connection.

A famous example of Shakti iconography is a 9th-century Durga idol found at the Shiva temple in Prambanan, Indonesia, depicting Durga's victory over the demon Mahishasura.

Some well-known goddesses in Shaktism, recognized by the 1st millennium CE, include Parvati, Durga, Kali, Yogamaya, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Gayatri, Radha, and Sita. After the decline of Buddhism in India, Hindu and Buddhist goddesses were combined in Eastern India to form the Mahavidya, a group of ten powerful goddesses.

The rarer forms of Devi found among tantric Shakta are the Mahavidyas, particularly Tripura Sundari, Bhuvaneshvari, Tara, Bhairavi, Chhinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagalamukhi, Matangi, and Kamala.

Other major goddess groups include the Sapta-Matrika ("Seven Mothers"), "who are the energies of different major Gods, and described as assisting the great Shakta Devi in her fight with demons", and the 64 Yoginis. The eight forms of the goddess Lakshmi, Ashtalakshmi; and the nine forms of goddess Durga, the Navadurgas, which are mainly worshipped during the Navaratri festival. Also worshipped regularly are the numerous Gramadevatas across the Indian villages.

Tantric traditions

A sage worships Devi, an 18th-century painting from the Tantrik Devi Series, Punjab, India

Sub-traditions of Shaktism include "Tantra", which refers to techniques, practices and ritual grammar involving mantra, yantra, nyasa, mudra and certain elements of traditional kundalini yoga, typically practiced under the guidance of a qualified guru after due initiation (diksha) and oral instruction to supplement various written sources. There has been a historic debate between Shakta theologians on whether its tantric practices are Vedic or non-Vedic.

The roots of Shakta Tantrism are unclear, probably ancient and independent of the Vedic tradition of Hinduism. The interaction between Vedic and Tantric traditions trace back to at least the sixth century, and the surge in Tantra tradition developments during the late medieval period, states Geoffrey Samuel, were a means to confront and cope with Islamic invasions and political instability in and after the 14th century CE.

Notable Shakta tantras are Saradatilaka Tantra of Lakshmanadesika (11th century), Kali Tantra (c. 15th century), Yogini Tantra, Sarvanandanatha's Sarvolassa Tantra, Brahmananda Giri's Saktananda Tarangini with Tararahasya and Purnananda Giri's Syamarahasya with Sritattvacintamani (16th century), Krishananda Agamavagisa's Tantrasara and Raghunatna Tarkavagisa Bhattacarya Agamatattvavilasa (17th century), as well as works of Bhaskaracharya (18th century).

Vidyāpīṭha

The Vidyāpīṭha is subdivided into Vāmatantras, Yāmalatantras, and Śaktitantras.

Kulamārga

The Kulamārga preserves some of the distinctive features of the Kāpālika tradition, from which it is derived. It is subdivided into four subcategories of texts based on the goddesses Kuleśvarī, Kubjikā, Kālī and Tripurasundarī respectively. The Trika texts are closely related to the Kuleśvarī texts and can be considered as part of the Kulamārga.

Worship

A modern depiction of the Divine Mother as the supreme divine ultimate reality encompassing all divinities.

Shaktism encompasses a nearly endless variety of beliefs and practices – from animism to philosophical speculation of the highest order – that seek to access the Shakti (Divine Energy or Power) that is believed to be the Devi's nature and form. Its two largest and most visible schools are the Srikula (family of Tripura Sundari), strongest in South India, and the Kalikula (family of Kali), which prevails in northern and eastern India.

Kalikula: family of Kali

The Kalikula tradition, or "Family of Kali," is a major branch of Shaktism, especially prevalent in northeastern India, including West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Kerala, and Nepal. In Bengal, goddesses like Kubjika, Kulesvari, Chamunda, Chandi, Shamshan Kali (of the cremation ground), Dakshina Kali, and Siddheshwari are worshipped for protection against diseases, smallpox, and bad omens. Kalikula lineages see the goddess (Devi) as the source of wisdom (vidya) and liberation (moksha), with a tantric focus often opposing conservative brahmanic traditions.

In the Kalikula tradition, Kali is the supreme deity, worshipped alongside Chandi, Bheema, Durga, Tara, and the Mahavidyas, as well as regional goddesses like Manasa (snake goddess), Ṣaṣṭī (children’s protectress), Śītalā (smallpox goddess), and Umā (Bengali name for Parvati)—all seen as forms of the Divine Mother.

In Nepal, the goddess is mainly worshipped as Bhavani, a key Hindu deity. Two major Shaktism centers in West Bengal are Kalighat in Kolkata, where the skull of Kali is said to be worshipped along with 25 forms of the goddess, and Tarapith in Birbhum district. Devotion (bhakti) to Kali in Kolkata emphasizes her as the destroyer of evil.

She is "the loving mother who protects her children and whose fierceness guards them. She is outwardly frightening – with dark skin, pointed teeth, and a necklace of skulls – but inwardly beautiful. She can guarantee a good rebirth or great religious insight, and her worship is often communal – especially at festivals, such as Kali Puja and Durga Puja. Worship may involve contemplation of the devotee's union with or love of the goddess, visualization of her form, chanting [of her] mantras, prayer before her image or yantra, and giving [of] offerings."

At Tarapith, Devi's manifestation as Tara ("She Who Saves") or Ugratara ("Fierce Tara") is ascendant, as the goddess who gives liberation (kaivalyadayini). [...] The forms of sadhana performed here are more yogic and tantric than devotional, and they often involve sitting alone at the [cremation] ground, surrounded by ash and bone. There are shamanic elements associated with the Tarapith tradition, including "conquest of the Goddess, exorcism, trance, and control of spirits."

The philosophical and devotional underpinning of all such ritual, however, remains a pervasive vision of the Devi as supreme, absolute divinity. As expressed by the 19th-century saint Ramakrishna, one of the most influential figures in modern Bengali Shaktism:

Kali is none other than Brahman. That which is called Brahman is really Kali. She is the Primal Energy. When that Energy remains inactive, I call It Brahman, and when It creates, preserves, or destroys, I call It Shakti or Kali. What you call Brahman I call Kali. Brahman and Kali are not different. They are like fire and its power to burn: if one thinks of fire one must think of its power to burn. If one recognizes Kali one must also recognize Brahman; again, if one recognizes Brahman one must recognize Kali. Brahman and Its Power are identical. It is Brahman whom I address as Shakti or Kali.

Festivals

Navaratri

The most important Shakta festival is Navaratri (lit. 'Festival of Nine Nights'), also known as "Sharad Navaratri" because it falls during the Hindu season of Sharad (September/October/November). This is the festival that worships the Navadurgas, forms of Devi. This festival – often taken together with the following tenth day, known as Dusshera or Vijayadashami – celebrates the goddess Durga's victory over a series of powerful demons described in the Devi Mahatmya. In Bengal, the last four days of Navaratri are called Durga Puja, and mark one episode in particular: Durga's iconic slaying of Mahishasura (lit., the "Buffalo Demon"). Durga Puja also became the main religio-cultural celebration within the Bengal diaspora in the West (together with Kali and Sarasvati Pujas, if a community enough big and rich).

While Hindus of all denominations celebrate the autumn Navratri festival, Shaktas also celebrate two additional Navratris – one in the spring and one in the summer. The spring festival is known as Vasanta Navaratri or Chaitra Navatri, and celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra (March/April). Srividya lineages dedicate this festival to Devi's form as the goddess Tripura Sundari. The summer festival is called Ashada Navaratri, as it is held during the Hindu month of Ashadha (June/July). The Vaishno Devi temple in Jammu, with Vaishno Devi considered an aspect of Durga, celebrates Navaratri. Ashada Navaratri, on the other hand, is considered particularly auspicious for devotees of the boar-headed Goddess Varahi, one of the seven Matrikas named in the Devi Mahatmya.

Vasant Panchami

Vasant Panchami is dedicated to Goddess Saraswati, the goddess of arts, skills, intelligence, knowledge, and wisdom. She is the consort of Lord Brahma, the creator.

She is mainly worshipped by students in schools and colleges in India. She was one of the significant deities of Vedic India, where she was worshipped in Gurukuls in ancient times. She embodies sound and voice itself. Vasant Panchami is primarily celebrated in February.

Diwali and others

Lakshmi Puja is a part of Durga Puja celebrations by Shaktas, where Laksmi symbolizes the goddess of abundance and autumn harvest. Lakshmi's biggest festival, however, is Diwali (or Deepavali; the "Festival of Lights"), a major Hindu holiday celebrated across India and in Nepal as Tihar. In North India, Diwali marks the beginning of the traditional New Year, and is held on the night of the new moon in the Hindu month of Kartik (usually October or November). Shaktas (and many non-Shaktas) celebrate it as another Lakshmi Puja, placing small oil lamps outside their homes and praying for the goddess's blessings. Diwali coincides with the celebration of Kali Puja, popular in Bengal, and some Shakta traditions focus their worship on Devi as Parvati rather than Lakshmi.

Animal sacrifice

Shakti tradition practices animal sacrifice to revere goddesses such as Kali in many parts of India but particularly in the eastern and Himalayan states of India and Nepal. This is either an actual animal, or a vegetable or sweet dish substitute considered equivalent to the animal. In many cases, Shakti devotees consider animal sacrifice distasteful, and practice alternate means of expressing devotion while respecting the views of others in their tradition.

In Shakti mythology, Durga slays an evil buffalo demon (left, 18th century statue). Right: A buffalo about to be sacrificed by a villager during Durga puja festival. The buffalo sacrifice practice, however, is rare in contemporary India.

In Nepal, West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar and Assam, animal sacrifices are performed at Shakti temples, particularly to mark the legend of goddess Durga slaying the buffalo demon. This involves slaying of a goat or a male water buffalo. Animal sacrifice is also an essential component as part of the Kaula tantra school of Shaktism. This practice is rare among Hindus, outside this region.

In Bengal, the animal sacrifice ritual follows the guidelines as seen in texts such as Mahanirvana Tantra. This ritual includes selecting the animal, then a priest offers a prayer to the animal, then recites the Gayatri Mantra in its ear before killing it. The meat of the sacrificed animal is then cooked and eaten by the Shakta devotees.

In Nepal, animal sacrifice en masse occurs during the three-day-long Gadhimai festival. In 2009 it was speculated that more than 250,000 animals were sacrificed during this event.

Temples and influence

Shakta temples are found all over South Asia. Many towns, villages and geographic landmarks are named for various forms of the Devi. Major pilgrimage sites of Shaktism are called "Shakti Peethas", literally "Seats of the Devi". These vary from 4 to 51.  

Buddhism

There has been a significant sharing of ideas, ritual grammar and concepts between Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana tradition) found in Nepal and Tibet and the Tantric Shakta tradition of Hinduism. Both movements cherish female deities. According to Miranda Shaw, "the confluence of Buddhism and Shaktism is such that Tantric Buddhism could properly be called Shakta Buddhism".

The Buddhist Aurangabad Caves about 100 kilometers from the Ellora Caves, dated to the 6th to 7th century CE, show Buddhist Matrikas (mother goddesses of Shaktism) next to the Buddha. Other goddesses in these caves include Durga. The goddess iconography in these Buddhist caves is close, but not identical to the Hindu Shakta tradition. The "seven Goddess mothers" are found in other Buddhist caves and literature, such as their discussion in the Buddhist text Manjusrimulakalpa and Vairocanabhisambodhi.

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• Rocher, Ludo (1986). The Puranas. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447025225.
• Sarma, S. A. (2001). Kena Upanisad: A Study From Sakta Perspective. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
• Shankarnarayanan, S. (2002b). Sri Chakra (4th ed.). Chennai: Samata Books. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |año-original= ignored (|orig-date= suggested) (help)
• Smith, Frederick M. (2006). The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13748-6.
• Suryanarayana Murthy, C. (2000). Sri Lalita Sahasranama with Introduction and Commentary. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |año-original= ignored (|orig-date= suggested) (help)
• Urban, Hugh B. (2003). Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics and Power in the Study of Religion. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-93689-8.
• Winternitz, M. (1973). History of Indian Literature. New Delhi. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |año-original= ignored (|orig-date= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)