Young Turks

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Flag of the Young Turk Revolution

Young Turks was a political reform movement within the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century. It favored the replacement of the Ottoman Empire's absolute monarchy with a constitutional government. They led a rebellion against the absolute rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. They also committed the Armenian Genocide.


History[change | change source]

The Young Turks was an opposition movement at the end of the Ottoman Empire. It existed between the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The members aimed to make reforms in politics and culture. They wanted to create a new identity. That was against the dominant ideology of the Ottoman rule.[1] This made them disconnected from the Ottoman regime. Therefore, Sultan Abdulhamid II (r. 1876-1909) used repression on them. Through the years, they built up a resistance from within and outside the empire.[2]

The movement was a combination of three groups. Each group had their own critic against the Ottoman regime. This led them to come together in the end. The first group was a community in exile. It traced its origins further back. Their people were already abroad from the time of the Young Ottomans (1860s and 1870s). The second group was a squad of military students. And the last group was a collaboration of dissatisfied army officers.[3]

The many members in the movement had an urban and literary character. Their Western style of education led them to a scientific view. Learning the French language had opened them doors to modern ideas. They received an influence from some well-known French thinkers. So, they came up with conflicting ideas against the current regime. In the end, they focused to replace the old structure of the empire with their new approach.[4]

Three Groups[change | change source]

1. The Young Ottomans in Exile[change | change source]

The first group was placed abroad. That was since the period of the Young Ottomans. That was a group of young Ottoman intellectuals. They were formed in 1867 after having critics on the development of the empire. They went quickly to Europe to escape the harsh policy of Sultan Abdulhamid II. These people get their education in the new Western types of schools. This made them able to see the ideas from a different view. For example, they criticized the Tanzimat (a period of reforms (1839-1876)). In their opinion, the Tanzimat simply imitated the Western style of government. But they did not want to lose their own values. And instead, they wanted a combination of Western and Eastern elements. A mix of Ottoman Islamic concepts and European innovations.[5]

They achieved their idea in 1876. In that year the constitution was established in the Ottoman Empire. This success did not last long. The Sultan abolished in February 1878 the established constitution and broke down the parliament. His persecutions of dissidents quickly led the movement disappear.[6] The subsequent murder of Midhat Pasha was not well received. He was the Father of the Constitution. In later years, this increased the opposition to the Sultan.[7]

The Young Ottomans placed themselves in cities as Paris and Geneva. They grew there in number. In the 1890s, they gained once more an opportunity to influence the political life in the Ottoman Empire. They followed the ideological line of their predecessors. They wanted to restore the constitution of 1876 and reject the tyrannical regime of the Sultan. They found the constitution the greatest mean to defeat the current royal government in power. In addition, they thought that their Ottomanism ideal would restore the empire to its previous glory.[8]

2. The Students of the Empire[change | change source]

The second group was a team of four military students from the state medical academy. They founded a secret resistance group on May 21, 1889. It was called the Ottoman Unity Society. The members of the group were not Ottoman Turks, but Muslims of other origins. For example, its four founders were an Albanian, a Circassian and two Kurds. They also received a lot of help from the immigrants from the Russian Empire.[9] The group wanted equal political access for every citizen. Their broad idea of Ottomanism was not based on nationality. This attracted various Ottoman people and not just Turks.[10]

The group shared the same customs and values ​​as the exile group. They were trained in the European way. They shared the opinion that Sultan Abdulhamid II was a problem to potential innovations. And they wanted to restore the constitution of 1876 and overthrow the Sultan. The Ottoman Ahmet Rıza was also a supporter of these ideas. He went to Paris in 1895 to join the centenary celebrations of the French Revolution. That historic event was a great inspiration to the young Ottomans. There he brought the ideas of the two groups together. He accepted to serve as the head of this Paris faction.[11]

However, attempts to expand their influence in the empire were unsuccessful. The Sultan's spy network discovered the existence of this group. He arrested the members and exiled them. He subsequently reinforced his tight security and imposed more censorship. The small group that survived this intervention had because of this less chance of success. But thanks to the exile to places such as Egypt and European cities, they became more influential abroad.[12]

3. The Military Group[change | change source]

The third group consisted of an alliance of army officers. They were dissatisfied after the negative intervention of Sultan Abdulhamid II in the military system. In response, they began to form secret resistance groups. These groups met the other two groups. The army officers of this resistance were mostly from the Third Ottoman Army of Salonika. They were also educated in European-style military schools. This caused a Western mindset in their acts. Their attitude towards the Sultan was another similarity with the other groups. They saw themselves as loyal soldiers of the empire. They wanted to preserve the traditional culture. But they felt that the Sultan's attitude towards the army did not support this. According to them, it undermined the goal.[13]  

After the arrest and exile of the members of the other groups, these officers regrouped within the empire. Because of this, they managed to play a greater role behind the scenes. They became the military branch of the movement. In addition, they were finding more support for their mission.[14]

The Congess of Ottoman Liberals[change | change source]

In 1902 there was an attempt to bring together the separated resistance groups. This happened in Paris at the Congress of Liberal Ottomans. The aim was to create a one-sided direction to the movement. This would be strengthen the opposition to Sultan Abdulhamid II. As explained above, the military branch of this movement was active in the empire itself. Therefore, this congress was mainly in the presence of citizens in exile. This was a mix of the group that was already abroad and the students who had joined later. From then on, this combination called itself the Young Turks. Unlike the previous student group, this group openly included Turkish Muslims.[15]

The group was divided into two flanks due to disagreements. One flank was led by Prince Sabahaddin. He was a cousin of the sultan. He committed betrayal towards his ruling family. He formed the Society of Ottoman Liberals. Their main goal was to overthrow the Sultan. In addition, they wanted to ask the British government for help. The other flank was spread across several small divisions. This was throughout the Ottoman Empire and Europe. They had influential resources to spread their ideas to the rest of the population to gather support. In 1907 they started calling themselves the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), with Ahmet Riza still heading it. This was the later political party that would rule in the Ottoman Empire.[16]

Meanwhile, the military branch that was in the empire had organized itself. They found the Ottoman Freedom Society of Salonika. The civilians had clearly grouped and settled in the first years of the new century. Now, the military had arrived to officially join the Young Turks movement. Their complaints about the repressive Sultan played a major role in this. Finally, in 1907, the members of this military group joined the CUP. Thus, the Young Turks had now formally combined its civil and military branches. The movement was in fact ready to launch the 1908 revolution.[17]

The Young Turk Ideology[change | change source]

The Origins[change | change source]

The ideology of the Young Turks started out from sentiments which originated in the 18th and 19th century[18]. During that period the Ottomans were sending their intellectuals and elites to study in the West in order to catch up with the scientific advancements of the time, which the West was leading[18]. These Ottoman intellectuals, after having settled in the west, would often feel disappointed with the general development back home.  From their perspective, the empire was declining from all fronts.[19] They believed that the social and cultural believes of Ottoman society were restrictive, which caused this decline. On the other hand, they believed that the progress of the West was due to the fact that they were leading the world in the sciences, which helped their development.[20] These sentiments of the time, eventually led to a class of intellectuals who would become openminded to Western-thought, which would be characterized by Rationalism, Materialism and Liberalism[21].

Political Ideas[change | change source]

In the public pamphlets that the Young Turks would spread, they would show themselves to the public as a very devout Islamic movement[22]. In one of the pamphlets they would even accuse the Sultan of being a secret atheist[22]. However, in their more private writings, The Young Turks would discuss totally different kinds of views. In those writings they would be more critical of traditional Islamic authorities[23]. Their worldview would center around terms like positivism, nationalism and constitutionalism[23].

Positivism had a big role within the worldview of the Young Turks, something which was acknowledge by many of the Young Turks as well[24]. Positivism supports a very scientific and rational way of looking at the world, thereby making it verry popular under the Young Turks. Positivism was a good ideological foundation for the Young Turks because it supported their already skeptical opinions on Religion and the clergy[25].  This focus on science and the quest of finding a scientific outlook, made positivism attractive for them.

A very important ideological believe of the Young Turks, was their nationalism. The Young Turks were very nationalistic, partially as a reaction to the European imperial politics that they were experiencing during their time[26].

In their leaflets the Young Turks would proclaim to want to restore the constitution of 1876, which  they believed to have been neglected by the present Ottoman rulers of their time[27]. There were also other motives to this constitutionalism. The return of an active constitution would be a means to change other things within the Ottoman empire. On of the social changes that the Young Turks wanted to see was for example the creation of a strong state which would be ruled by an intellectual elite[27]. Within this new kind of state the law would not be based on religion and a strong separation would be made between the state and religious institutions[27]. The last point would be that this state would represent a Turkish nation, something controversial because of the fact that some of the Young Turks were not Turkish themselves[28]. For the Young Turks constitutionalism was a means to catch up to the west[28].

The Young Turk revolution and its legacy[change | change source]

In 1908 the Turkish revolutionaries overthrew the ottoman authorities and claimed to have established a regime which would be democratic unlike the Ottoman monarchs[29]. After restoring the constitution, the young Turks would be involved with other challenges within their 10 years of governance, such as the conflicts outside with the West and internally with constantly revolting minorities within the empire[30]. Despite all of this, the young Turks implemented a lot of important changes[30].  

The implementation of the language law in 1915 created the legal basis for establishing that accounts should be managed in Turkish, thereby aiding educated Turks to be able to work for European companies[31]. Thereby formalizing language requirements for companies and eventually society.

Other important reforms brought by the Young Turks were the steps that they set for the further emancipation of women within the empire, for example by supporting the role of women in society and the workforce[32]. Aswell by allowing more women the right to education, for example by building girls' schools and opening the door to study at Istanbul University for female students[32].

References[change | change source]

  1. ↑ Cleveland, William, L.; Bunton, Martin (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East. New York: Routledge. p. 124. ISBN 9780429495502.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ↑ Zürcher, Erik, J. (2010). The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey. London: I.B.Tauris. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-85771-807-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ↑ Cleveland, William, J. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East. New York: Routledge. p. 125. ISBN 9780429495502.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ↑ Zürcher, Erik, J. (2010). The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey. London: I.B.Tauris. p. 112-114. ISBN 978-1-84885-271-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ Anderson, Betty, S. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East : Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues. Stanford: Standford University Press. p. 137. ISBN 9780804783248.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ Anderson, Betty, S. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East : Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 138. ISBN 9780804783248.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ↑ Zürcher, Erik, J. (2010). The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey. London: I.B.Tauris. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-84885-271-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ Cleveland, William, J.; Bunton, Martin (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East. New York: Routledge. p. 125-126. ISBN 9780429495502.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ↑ Zürcher, Erik, J. (2010). The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey. London: I.B.Tauris. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-84885-271-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ↑ Anderson, Betty, S. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East : Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 138. ISBN 9780804783248.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Zürcher, Erik, J. (2010). The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey. London: I.B.Tauris. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-84885-271-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ Cleveland, William, J.; Bunton, Martin (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East. New York: Routledge. p. 126. ISBN 9780429495502.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ Cleveland, William, J.; Bunton, Martin (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East. New York: Routledge. p. 126. ISBN 9780429495502.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ↑ Anderson, Betty, S. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East : Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 138. ISBN 9780804783248.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ↑ Anderson, Betty, S. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East : Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 139. ISBN 9780804783248.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ↑ Zürcher, Erik, J. (2010). The Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building: From the Ottoman Empire to Atatürk's Turkey. London: I.B.Tauris. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-84885-271-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ Anderson, Betty, S. (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East : Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 139-140. ISBN 9780804783248.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (2009). The Young Turks in opposition. Studies in Middle Eastern history (Nachdr. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-19-509115-1.
  19. ↑ Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (1995). The Young Turks in opposition. Studies in Middle Eastern history. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-509115-1.
  20. ↑ Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (2009). The Young Turks in opposition. Studies in Middle Eastern history (Nachdr. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-19-509115-1.
  21. ↑ Shukla, Ram Lakhan (1970). "The Pan-Islamic Policy of the Young Turks and India". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 32: 302. ISSN 2249-1937.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (2009). The Young Turks in opposition. Studies in Middle Eastern history (Nachdr. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 200–201. ISBN 978-0-19-509115-1.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (1995). The Young Turks in opposition. Studies in Middle Eastern history. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-19-509115-1.
  24. ↑ Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (2009). The Young Turks in opposition. Studies in Middle Eastern history (Nachdr. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-19-509115-1.
  25. ↑ Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (1995). The Young Turks in opposition. Studies in Middle Eastern history. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 206–208. ISBN 978-0-19-509115-1.
  26. ↑ Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (1995). The Young Turks in opposition. Studies in Middle Eastern history. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 204–206. ISBN 978-0-19-509115-1.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (1995). The Young Turks in opposition. Studies in Middle Eastern history. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 210–211. ISBN 978-0-19-509115-1.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (2009). The Young Turks in opposition. Studies in Middle Eastern history (Nachdr. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 211–215. ISBN 978-0-19-509115-1.
  29. ↑ Arjomand, Saïd Amir (1992). "Constitutions and the struggle for political order: a study in the modernization of political traditions". European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie / Europäisches Archiv für Soziologie. 33 (1): 52–53. ISSN 0003-9756.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Qamaruddin, Md. (1978). "Some Contributions of the Young Turks to Modern Turkey". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 39: 902. ISSN 2249-1937. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  31. ↑ Ahmad, Feroz (1968). "The Young Turk Revolution". Journal of Contemporary History. 3 (3): 905. ISSN 0022-0094. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Ahmad, Feroz (1968). "The Young Turk Revolution". Journal of Contemporary History. 3 (3): 906. ISSN 0022-0094.
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