User:Slta2143

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Ivory Trade[change | change source]

Ivory trade is the illegal trade in ivory tusks of hippopotamus, walrus, mammoth, Asian and African elephants. The most common illegally traded animals are Asian and African elephants. Ivory is most commonly found in Eastern and North-Eastern Africa.

Seized ivory

Elephant Ivory[change | change source]

African countries have sold elephant ivory to Europe and Asia for hundreds of years. Ivory is an important product because people are willing to pay lots of money for it. Ivory is used in medicines, exotic foods, ceremonies, piano keys, and other decorative items. In some areas ivory is more valuable than gold [1][2].

African Elephant[change | change source]

In 2011, over 35,000-38,000 elephants have been killed. Majority of the elephant population lives in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Kenya, and Tanzania [2][3]. Prior to 1990, the demand for ivory has continued to stay at a steady rate. In the late 1990s, the elephant population has rapidly decreased due to the sudden increase in demand. The demand caused increased numbers of poaching incidents. As a result, the African elephant became endangered [2][4]. African elephants have lost more than 75% of their original population [3].

Demand[change | change source]

Ivory demand has tripled since 1998 [2][3]. Elephant killings in 2007 and 2011 were particularly high compared to other years. Majority of the elephants being hunted are African elephants. Wild African elephants are more vulnerable to being poached than domesticated Asian elephants [1][4]. Increase in demands have led to more elephants migrating across African borders [3]. Prior to 1998, African countries had a high elephant population. After the 1990s, 75% of the elephant population has been killed [3][4]. 

Demand for ivory originated from Europe and the Americas. Recently Asian countries have been increasing their demand on ivory. As of 2010, China and Thailand are the largest consumers of ivory [3][4]. Since 2010, China’s middle class gained more wealth. As a result, China’s middle class is demanding more ivory. In Asian countries, ivory symbolizes wealth. Asian families are demanding ivory to show off about their fortune and popularity [2][5]

The decline of elephants resulted in a low ivory supply. Despite the limited ivory quantity, there is still a rise in demand. Ivory prices are constantly increasing at high rates. In 2008, ivory prices were approximately $145 per kilogram. In 2010, ivory prices rose up to $700 per kilogram. China and Japan have maintained a high price in ivory since 2008 [5].

Poaching and Illegal Trade[change | change source]

The increased demand from Asian countries led to a rise in poaching incidents. Poaching groups consists largely of rebel militias and government armies. The Sudanese militia, Janjaweed, is involved with ivory poaching in Kenya. Armed forces are mainly located in Somalia, Kenya, and the Democratic Republic of Congo [1][2]. The rebel groups are a part of an illegal network where trading operations are carried out. This illegal form of criminal activity has low risk and a high profit.

The illegal smuggling of ivory is a complex process. Professional smugglers are hired for their skills and methods [1][6]. Complex modes of transportation are used throughout the process [2][6]. Some of the transportation includes planes, boats, freights, etc. The smuggling process can take several days to complete. Ivory is stored in secret compartments located in suitcases and containers [2][6]. Preparation is required to ensure the ivory does not get detected by investigators. Preparation includes reloading, repacking, and relabeling of the ivory [1][6].

Corruption[change | change source]

Government corruption is involved in the rise of illegal trade activity. Countries where ivory trade is common often have inefficient government systems [4][5]. Governments are unable to provide basic needs to the communities. Ineffective communities often rely on the selling ivory to make an income. Corruption among the government official cause them to ignore illegal activity. For example, bribing is common among politicians to drop charges against ivory poachers and smugglers. Local officials create fake documentations and report false information [1][4].

In China, corruption is within the internal government structure. China has ineffective border controls. This is due to Chinese government officials being uneducated on the issue. This creates loopholes in China’s customs department. Loopholes make it difficult to prevent ivory smugglers from crossing the border. As a result, illegal trade groups use the loopholes to their advantage [2][4].

CITES Solutions[change | change source]

Solutions to the problem have been addressed by CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). CITES is an international treaty that helps protect wild animals and plants. In 1989, CITES banned all international commercial trade of ivory. They placed African elephants into Appendix I. Appendix I is defined as species of animals in danger of extinction. Animals in this category cannot be used for international trade unless it is for scientific research. The elephant population slightly increased in the 1990s because of this trade ban [2][5]. There are loopholes within this treaty that cause the continuation of ivory smuggling. The trade ban regulations were not enforced leading to increased elephant poaching incidents [1][2].

After the 1989 ban, CITES issued legal one-off sales where nations could trade ivory with one another [2]. One-off sales are the legal trading of ivory amongst countries. African countries like Tanzania, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe need CITES approval to sell their ivory supply. In 2007, CITES agreed to these terms and several tons of ivory was sold to Japan and China [2][5]. The increased Japanese monitoring on the ivory trade led to few loopholes being found in the Japanese customs system. Unlike the Japanese, the Chinese still have issues with their security system. Illegal trading of ivory is still a problem to China.

Asian Elephants[change | change source]

Global statistics estimate 30,000-50,000 of the Asian elephant population is left [7]. In 1975, CITES placed Asian elephant on Appendix 1 [7]. Since then, the Asian elephants have been listed as an endangered species and were banned for international trade. As of 2012, Sri Lanka and India have the largest Asian elephant population in the world [7][8]. 60% of the elephant population lives in India [8]. 

Walrus Ivory[change | change source]

Walrus ivory was prominent in Scandinavia and Russia during the medieval period. Scandinavian countries mainly traded with England. Walrus ivory was mainly used as knife handles [9]. Although walrus poaching was common, walrus ivory was rarely used. Most ivory came from elephant tusks [9]. Because walrus ivory was not commonly used, walrus ivory prices were higher than elephant ivory. 

Notes[change | change source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Elliott, Lorraine (2012)
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 Montazeri, Sharon (2014)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Maisels, Fiona and Strindberg, Samantha (2013)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Vandegrift, Joseph (2013)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Underwood, Fiona, Burn, Robert and Miliken, Tom (2013)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Basu, Gautam (2013)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Silva, Sermin, Ranjeewa, Ashoka, and Weerakoon, Devaka (2011)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Goswami, Varun and Karanth, Ullas (2007)
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Rijkelijkhuizen, Marloes (2009)

Refereneces[change | change source]

  • Elliott, Lorraine (2012) “Fighting Transnational Environmental Crime.” Journal of International Affairs,66(1), 87-104.
  • Montazeri, Sharon (2014) “Protecting the Pachyderm: The Significance of Ivory Trade Regulation for African Elephant Conservation.” Cardozo Journal of International and Comparative Law, 22(121), 121-152.
  • Maisels, Fiona and Strindberg, Samantha (2013) “Devastating Decline of Forest Elephants in Central Africa.” PLOS One, 8(3), 1-13. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059469
  • Vandegrift, Joseph (2013) “Elephant Poaching: Cities Failure to Combat the Growth in Chinese Demand for Ivory.” HeinOnline, 31(102), 102-135.
  • Underwood, Fiona, Burn, Robert and Miliken, Tom (2013) “Dissecting the Illegal Ivory Trade: An Analysis of Ivory Seizures Data.” PLOS One, 8(10), 1-12. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076539
  • Basu, Gautam (2013) “The Role of Transnational Smuggling Operations in Illicit Supply Chains.” Journal of Transportation Security, 6, 315-328. DOI 10.1007/s12198-013-0118-y
  • Silva, Shermin, Ranjeewa, Ashoka, and Weerakoon, Devaka (2011) “Demography of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Uda Walawe National Park, Sri Lanka based on identified individuals” Biological Conservation, 144 (5), 1742-1753 DOI:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.03.011
  • Goswami, Varun and Karanth, Ullas (2007) “Application of Photographic Capture – Recapture Modelling to Estimate Demographic Parameters for Male Asian Elephants” Animal Conservation, 10(3), 391-399, DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2007.00124.x
  • Rijkelijkhuizen, Marloes (2009) “Whales, Walruses, and Elephants: Artisans in Ivory, Baleen, and Other Skeletal Materials in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Amsterdam” International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 13(4), 409-429, DOI 10.1007/s10761-009-0091-0
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