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Pannonian romance[change source]

History[change source]

Pannonia province in the Roman Empire in 125
Surviving fragment of a Roman military diploma found at Carnuntum (now in Austria) in the province of Pannonia

In the north, a Roman population probably still lived in the former province of Pannonia at least in all the 6th century and the question whether the "dialect" spoken there belonged to East Latin or to the Occidental dialects has been discussed by scholars without a definite conclusion [1]

The conquest of the region by the Roman Empire was completed by 9 BC, and the territory integrated into Illyricum. In 10 AD Pannonia was organized as a separate province.[2]

The Romanized population[3] of Pannonia (for which the historian Theodore Mommsen calculated a population of about 200,000 around the fourth century) survived Barbarian invasions (by the Huns, Goths, Avars and others), although they were reduced to few thousands by the 6th century, living mainly in fortified villages like Keszthely and Fenékpuszta.

There were other places in Pannonia where local population continued to speak forms of Vulgar Latin after the fifth century: Pécs, Sopron, Szombathely, Dunaújváros. Many Christian relics with inscriptions in Latin have been found in these towns.

Image of Roman Pannonia girl (VI century), wearing ornaments of the "Keszthely Culture"

But it was on the western shore of the Pelso lake (now called Lake Balaton) where a peculiar society of craftsmen formed, called the Keszthely culture, of which more than 6,000 artisan tombs and many products (including in gold) are left.

Romance dialects disappeared due to assimilation with German and Slavic invaders in borders areas of the Roman limes near the Danube river in Pannonia, Raetia (today Bavaria and Switzerland) and Noricum (today Austria)[4], but in the area of Lake Balaton survived because the Avars needed a population of skilled artisans and crafstmen for their own needs.

After the Avars were defeated by Charlemagne and disappeared at the beginning of the 9th century, the Romanized craftsmen of the "Keszthely culture" were no longer needed and so quickly were assimilated: their language, Pannonian Romance, soon disappeared with them in the 10th century.[5]

In Pannonia the material culture of the native population showed many signs of full Romanization in the first 160 years of Roman rule.[6]

In the second half of the second century there were major changes in the composition of the population, but the organic continuity of the Latin language development of the area was unbroken.[7] The particularly destructive Marcomannic Wars changed the ethno-linguistic makeup of the province: speakers of the indigenous Celtic and Illyrian languages decreased in number, to be replaced by immigrants of different culture who used latin for communication. This strengthened the position of Latin, allowing it to play an intermediary role.[8]

The Pannonian provinces were exposed in the Migration Period starting in the fourth century. By 401, mass emigration became general after two hard decades full with Germanic and equestrian nomadic invasions. Hunnic control expanded gradually from 410, and concluded with the cession of Pannonia by the Western Roman Empire in 433.[9]

Only sporadic groups remained after the end of the 5th century. Almost all families fled by the establishment of the Avar Khaganate in the second half of the 6th century, many moving to the Dalmatia coast or being taken by the Lombards into the Italian Peninsula.[9][10]

At the time of late Slavic and Avarian expansion up the Danube (after the roman withdrawal in 430 AD), Pannonia towns still had a substantial Roman population as attested to by coin dated graves. In Tokod (Brigetio) the population had shrunk considerably in the 5th century, but can be attested into the 6th century.[11] Carnuntum suffered a population collapse, after being transferred to Hun control and was described by a witness, Ammianus Marcellinus, as an abandoned and rotting nest, in the 5th century. The rest population of the area moved to settlements close to what would become Hainburg.[12] Further up river on the Danube, Roman graves from 6th century of Vindobona (actual Wien) were documented; and although Vienna had a continuous population, when the last Romanized inhabitants were assimilated after the 6th century is uncertain. Place names along the Tullnina rivers suggest a continued rural Roman population above Tulln.[13] Many Roman town names are kept or adapted, Zeizinmure – Zeiselmauer, Vindobona – Vienna. The Vienna Woods is catalogued as Cumeoberg or Comagenus mons into the Carolingian era. Vita S. Severini notes the emigration of the Roman population of Lauriacum, in the 8th century.[14] Fragments of marble sculptures on slabs, pillars, capitals and reliquary altars dating back to the 5th century were found here in several places (Savaria-Szombathely, Györ-Arrabona, Felsödörgicse, Székesfehérvár-Gorsium, Aquincum-Pest) and a bronze cross in Komárom-Brigetio.[15]

  • The Castellum (Roman fortress) in Keszthely–Fenékpuszta, inside the Basilica II and the Horreum (Granary)
  • South Gate, ruins from the Roman period
    South Gate, ruins from the Roman period
  • Basilica II (top) and the Horreum (bottom)
    Basilica II (top) and the Horreum (bottom)
  • The basement of the Basilica II

According to historian Alexandru Madgearu the Romance-speaking population might have survived in very small groups until the 9th century, when it was assimilated into the newly Christianized Slavic population. The same author, insist writing about the presumed ethnicity and implicitly native language of the population, gives as proof of Roman descent the existence of workshops and Roman working techniques. Place names such as Siscia (Sisak), Poetovio (Ptuj), Savaria (Sabaria), Vindobona (Wien), Carnutum mentioned in the 8th century in their Latin form is another argument for the Romance nature of the language spoken by their inhabitants.[16]

Language[change source]

Remains of a Christian church of the V century in Sopianae (Pecz), Pannonia (Hungary)

At Fenekpuszta (Keszthely)..excavations have brought to light a unique group of finds that suggest not only Christians but Romans too.....There are finds such as a gold pin with the name BONOSA proving that some ethnic group of Roman complexion remained at Fenekpuszta (after the barbarian invasions) [17]

Pannonian Romance is an Indo-European language, pertaining to the Centum group, with Celtic roots and related to the old Illyrian. According to the linguist Roxana Curc, the main source of intelligence on this extinct language is the many toponyms in the area of Lake Balaton and some anthroponyms, hydronims and etonyms that come from the Keszthely culture.

In addition to this, the same Keszthely name (pronounced in Hungarian “Kestei”) is similar to the Istrian-Venetic “castei”, which means “castle”, and is probably an original word of the Pannonian Romance language, according to the Hungarian linguist Julius Pokornyin. [18] This Hungarian linguist also writes that the word “Pannonia” is originated from the illyrian word “pen” (marsh) and this demonstrates that the romanized language of the Pannonians was related to the Illyrian, another extinct Balkan language.

Pannonian Romance probably contributed to the creation of the 300 basic words of the “Latin substratum” of the Balkan Romance languages, according to Romanian linguist Alexandru Rossetti. [19]

Some scholars argue that the Pannonian Romance lacks clear evidences of existence, because no writings of this language has been found until now. But, according to Sós Árthur, [20] in some of the 6000 tombs of the Keszthely culture there are words in vernacular Latin that seems related to the Pannonian Romance language. This is the case, for example, of a gold pin with the inscription "BONOSA" [21], found between sixth century human bones (and so not added later).

Characteristics[change source]

Analysis of the Vulgar Latin spoken in Pannonia showed several phonetical developments:[7][22]

  • the shortening of /ll/ and /nn/ geminates.
  • palatalization of /d/.
  • the merger of unstressed /e/~/i/ (Decibali for Decebali),[23] but /o/~/u/ fusion is less noticeable.
  • disappearance of /h/ from the 4th century onwards.
  • /ns/ simplified to /n/, /nt/ to /t/ - less often to /n/. /nkt/ group was simplified to /nt/ or /kt/, but it is not know why the development was not uniform.
  • palatalization of plosives /t/, /d/, /k/ is poorly attested.
  • reduction of the diphthong ao to a (Laodicena to Ladicena), and ae to e (bonae to bone).
  • lenition is attested (extricado < extricatus) from the 3rd century.

As in other provinces, accusatives after the 1st century AD were regularly switched to nominatives as the subjects of verbs, ergo -as was often written instead of -ae, which is the correct plural inflection of first-declension feminine nouns. Many instances of this error are found on a perhaps 3rd century epitaph from Pannonia. It says "hic quescunt duas matres duas filias... et aduenas II paruolas" (CIL III 3551), which means "here lie two mothers, two daughters... and two young foreign girls".[24]

The dative and genitive cases are evidently quite common in the inscriptions, and this ratio unmistakably indicates that Pannonia was where the dative-genitive fusion was most significant relative to the rest of the empire. Since the rate is 45% in Pannonia and 24% for the entire empire.[25]

An examination of the Pannonian Latin texts as a whole reveals that the process of amalgamation has only begun in linguistic singular.[7]

Accusative-ablative mergers account for 15% of case errors in Pannonian Latin.[7]

Geographic distribution and demise[change source]

Roman Pannonia in the fifth century, showing Keszthely-Fenekpuszta on lake Pelso/Balaton

The area where and for how long the language was spoken can be hypothesised from written records, gravestone inscriptions, archaeological excavation of houses characterized by Romanized architecture and furnishings,[26] oral tradition and linguistic remnants in successor languages.

Inner Pannonia[change source]

Pannonian Romance was spoken around Lake Balaton in western Hungary, mainly in the fortified villages of Keszthely and Fenékpuszta.[27]

Lower Limes[change source]

Romanized tombs of Pannonians of the 6th century were found include: Pécs (the Roman Sopianae), possibly in Szentendre (Castra Constantia) and Visegrád (Pote Navata), but unclear how much influence from Avar and Slavic-speakers. Speakers disappears or assimilated before 8th century[28] Dunaújváros. Early Slavic and Avarian settlement activity was concentrated along the Danube south of Aquinicum (Buda),[29] only expanding up river into the Roman towns after 6th century.

Upper Limes[change source]

At the time of late Slavic and Avarian expansion up the Danube, Pannonia Superior towns still had a substantial Roman population as attested to by coin dated graves.[30][31] In Tokod (Brigetio) the population had shrunk considerably in the 5th century, but can be attested into the 6th century.[32] Carnuntum suffered a population collapse, after being transferred to Hun control and was described by a witness, Ammianus Marcellinus, as an abandoned and rotting nest, in the 5th century.[33] The rest population of the area moved to settlements close to what would become Hainburg. Further up river on the Danube, Roman graves from 6th century of Vindobona were documented;[28] and although Vienna had a continuous population, when the last Romanized inhabitants were assimilated after the 6th century is uncertain. Place names along the Tullnina rivers suggest a continued rural Roman population above Tulln.[34] Many Roman town names are kept or adapted, Zeizinmure – Zeiselmauer, Vindobona – Vienna. The Vienna Woods is catalogued as Cumeoberg or Comagenus mons into the Carolingian era. Vita S. Severini notes the emigration of the Roman population of Lauriacum, in the 8th century.[35]

Along the Amber Road[change source]

Romanized tombs of: Szombathely (Savaria),[source?] Sopron (Scarbantia),[28] Hegykő[28] and Oggau (until the 6th century).[36]

  1. ↑ André du Nay. The Origins of the Rumanians.The early history of the Rumanian language
  2. ↑ "Pannonia - Province of the Roman Empire | UNRV.com". www.unrv.com. Retrieved 2023-08-16.
  3. ↑ Most likely the bigger part of the indigenous population spoke P-Celtic before the Roman conquest. This group was influenced by the neighbouring cultures (eg. Illyrian and Scythian). Unfortunately, the surviving data isn't enough to distinguish their tribes' languages.[1]
  4. ↑ Romance disappearance in "Romania submersa"
  5. ↑ Sós, Árthur/Salamon Á. Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6 th-9 th c.) at Pókaszepetk
  6. ↑ Tóth, Endre (2001). "The Population: Dacians and Settlers". History of Transylvania Volume I. From the Beginnings to 1606 - II. Transylvania in Prehistory and Antiquity - 3. The Roman Province of Dacia. New York: Columbia University Press, (The Hungarian original by Institute of History Of The Hungarian Academy of Sciences). ISBN 0-88033-479-7.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Gonda 2016.
  8. ↑ Péterváry 2012, p. 18.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Mócsy, András (1974). "The Beginning of the Dark Age". In Frere, Sheppard (ed.). Pannonia and Upper Moesia – A history of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. pp. 339–358. ISBN 978-0-415-74582-6.
  10. ↑ Herman 2000, p. 13.
  11. ↑ Lange, Martin. Zur Dimension Der Zeit Und Des Raumes Im Werk Max Frischs. (German Text) (Thesis). Louisiana State University Libraries.
  12. ↑ Barbiera, Irene (2005). Changing lands in changing memories: migration and identity during the Lombard invasions. Biblioteca di Archeologia medievale. Firenze: Ed. All'Insegna del Giglio. ISBN 978-88-7814-301-2.
  13. ↑ Friedrich, Lotter (2003). "Völkerverschiebungen im Ostalpen-Mitteldonau-Raum zwischen Antike und Mittelalter". degruyter.com. p. 167. Retrieved 15 August 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  14. ↑ Weinzierl, Herbert Franz (2018). Nachantike Siedlungsentwicklung am römischen Limes in Österreich. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. ISBN 978-3-7001-7962-7.
  15. ↑ Friedrich, Lotter (2003). "Völkerverschiebungen im Ostalpen-Mitteldonau-Raum zwischen Antike und Mittelalter". degruyter.com. pp. 169–170. Retrieved 15 August 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  16. ↑ Madgearu, Alexandru (2005). "The Romanians in the Anonymous". Academie.edu. p. 68-76. Retrieved 15 August 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  17. ↑ Romans in Kezsthely (Fenekpuszta) in the fifth and sixth century (Google book)
  18. ↑ Indogermanisches Etymologisches Worterbuch
  19. ↑ Istoria limbii române
  20. ↑ Cemeteries of the Early Middle Ages (6 th-9 th c.) at Pókaszepetkin
  21. ↑ Mócsy, András. Pannonia and Upper Moesia: a history of the middle Danube provinces of the Roman Empire p.353
  22. ↑ Adamik 2011, p. 53.
  23. ↑ Barta, Andrea (2009). "The Language of Latin Curse Tablets from Pannonia" (PDF). core.ac. p. 26. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
  24. ↑ Herman 2000, p. 55.
  25. ↑ Fehér, Bence (2007). Pannonia latin nyelvtörténete. Budapest.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  26. ↑ Alois Stuppner (2007-01-01). "Rural settlements in the middle Danube region from Late Antiquity to Middle Ages". Antiquité Tardive (21). ISSN 1250-7334.
  27. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska; Gerda von Bülow; Heinrich Zabehlicky (2011). "Überlegungen zu den Hauptgebäuden der pannonischen Innenbefestigungen im Kontext spätrömischer Villenarchitektur.". Bruckneudorf und Gamzigrad: spätantike Paläste und Großvillen im Donau-Balkan-Raum: Akten des internationalen Kolloquiums in Bruckneudorf vom 15. bis Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes (in German). Bonn. pp. 104, 102, 95, 106. ISBN 978-3-900305-59-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Irene Barbiera (2005). Changing Lands in Changing Memories. Migration and Identity during the Lombard Invasion. p. 136. ISBN 9788878143012.
  29. ↑ Friedrich Lotter (2003). Völkerverschiebungen im Ostalpen-Mitteldonau-Raum zwischen Antike und Mittelalter (375–600). p. 155. ISBN 9783110898668.
  30. ↑ Laszlo. Société des Avars. pp. 286–293.
  31. ↑ Garam. "zur Besiedlung des pannonischen Raumes im Späten 6. jh". Die münzdatierten Gräber (in German). Daim. p. 137.
  32. ↑ András Graf (1936). "Übersicht der antiken Geographie von Pannonien (Dissertationes Pannonicae I 5)". Budapest: 92. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  33. ↑ Herbert Weinzierl (2018). Nachantike Siedlungsentwicklung am Römischen Limes. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 46. ISBN 9783700179627.
  34. ↑ Friedrich Lotter (2003). Völkerverschiebungen im Ostalpen-Mitteldonau-Raum zwischen Antike und Mittelalter (375–600). p. 188. ISBN 9783110898668.
  35. ↑ Herbert Weinzierl (2018). Nachantike Siedlungsentwicklung am Römischen Limes. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 79. ISBN 9783700179627.
  36. ↑ Gabriele PUSCHNIGG. Ein spätantikes Gräberfeld in Ogga (PDF). p. 99.
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