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Aluminium, 00Al
Aluminium
Pronunciation
Alternative namealuminum (U.S., Canada)
Appearancesilvery gray metallic
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Al)
26.9815384(3)[2]
Aluminium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
B
↑
Al
↓
Ga
magnesium ← aluminium → silicon
Groupgroup 13 (boron group)
Periodperiod 3
Block  p-block
Electron configuration[Ne] 3s2 3p1
Electrons per shell2, 8, 3
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point933.47 K ​(660.32 °C, ​1220.58 °F)
Boiling point2743 K ​(2470 °C, ​4478 °F)
Density (near r.t.)2.70 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)2.375 g/cm3
Heat of fusion10.71 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization284 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity24.20 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790
Atomic properties
Oxidation states−2, −1, 0,[3] +1,[4] +2,[5] +3 (an amphoteric oxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.61
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 577.5 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1816.7 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 2744.8 kJ/mol
  • (more)
Atomic radiusempirical: 143 pm
Covalent radius121±4 pm
Van der Waals radius184 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral lines of aluminium
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure ​face-centered cubic (fcc)
Face-centered cubic crystal structure for aluminium
Speed of sound thin rod(rolled) 5000 m/s (at r.t.)
Thermal expansion23.1 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity237 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity26.5 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic orderingparamagnetic[6]
Molar magnetic susceptibility+16.5·10−6 cm3/mol
Young's modulus70 GPa
Shear modulus26 GPa
Bulk modulus76 GPa
Poisson ratio0.35
Mohs hardness2.75
Vickers hardness160–350 MPa
Brinell hardness160–550 MPa
CAS Number7429-90-5
History
Namingafter alumina (aluminium oxide), itself named after mineral alum
PredictionAntoine Lavoisier (1782)
Discovery and first isolationHans Christian Ørsted (1824)
Named byHumphry Davy (1812)
Isotopes of aluminium
Main isotopes[7] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
26Al trace 7.17×105 y β+84% 26Mg
ε[8]16% 26Mg
γ –
27Al 100% stable
 Category: Aluminium
| references

Aluminum (in British English: Aluminium) is a chemical element. The symbol for aluminum is Al, and its atomic number is 13. aluminum is the most abundant metal. It is a mononuclidic element.

History

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People have tried to produce aluminum since 1760. The first successful attempt, finished in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminum chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin. He presented his results and showed a sample of the new metal in 1825.[11] In 1827, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminum.[12] (The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.) He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminum chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminum.[13] In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal. For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as the person who discovered aluminum.

Properties

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Aluminum is a very good conductor of electricity and heat. It is light and strong. It can be hammered into sheets (malleable) or pulled out into wires (ductile). It is a highly reactive metal, although it is corrosion resistant.

A fresh film of aluminum is a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation.

Aluminum prevents corrosion by forming a small, thin layer of aluminum oxide on its surface. This layer protects the metal by preventing oxygen from reaching it. Corrosion can not occur without oxygen. Because of this thin layer, the reactivity of aluminum is not seen. As a powder it burns hot. Uses include fireworks displays and rocket fuel.

Occurrence and preparation

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Pure aluminum is made from bauxite, a kind of rock that has aluminum oxide and many impurities. The bauxite is crushed and reacted with sodium hydroxide. The aluminum oxide dissolves. Then the aluminum oxide is dissolved in liquid cryolite. Natural cryolite is a rare mineral, so most is produced artificially. The aluminum oxide is electrolyzed with carbon to make aluminum and carbon dioxide. The largest producer of aluminum is China. China produces about 31,873 thousand tonnes of aluminum.

Aluminum was once considered a precious metal that was even more valuable than gold[verification needed]. This is no longer true because new ways of smelting it are cheaper and easier.

In space

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Aluminum is the 12th most abundant of all elements. It is the 3rd most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers.[14] The only stable isotope of aluminum is aluminum-27. It is the 18th most abundant nucleus in the Universe. It is created after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovae: this fusion creates magnesium-26, which, when capturing free protons and neutrons becomes aluminum. Essentially all aluminum now in existence is aluminum-27; aluminum-26 was there in the early Solar System but is now extinct. The trace quantities of aluminum-26 that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas.[15]

On Earth

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Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminum by mass.[16] In the Earth's crust, aluminum is the most abundant metallic element by mass (8.23%). It is also the third most abundant of all elements in the Earth's crust. A lot of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminum.[17] But, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminum by mass. aluminum also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg.[18]

Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. aluminum also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise.[19] Native aluminum has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea.

Compounds

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aluminum forms chemical compounds in the +3 oxidation state. They are generally unreactive. aluminum chloride and aluminum oxide examples. Very rarely are compounds in the +1 or +2 oxidation state.

Uses

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Many things are made of aluminum. Much of it is used in overhead power lines. It is also widely used in window frames and aircraft bodies. It is found at home as kitchenware, soft drink cans, and cooking foil. aluminum is also used to coat car headlamps and compact discs. It is used in electrical transmission lines because of its light weight. It can be deposited on the surface of glass to make mirrors, where a thin layer of aluminum oxide quickly forms that acts as a protective coating. aluminum oxide is also used to make synthetic rubies and sapphires for lasers. aluminum can now be produced from clay, but the process is not economically feasible at today.

Pure aluminum is very soft, so a harder metal is almost always added. The harder metal is usually copper. Copper/aluminum alloys are to make ships, because the aluminum prevents corrosion, and the copper prevents barnacles.

aluminum compounds are used in deodorants, water processing plants, food additives, and antacids. Lithium aluminum hydride is a strong reducing agent used in organic chemistry.

aluminum sulfate is used in water treatment. It is also used as a mordant in dyeing, in pickling seeds, deodorizing of mineral oils, in leather tanning, and in production of other aluminum compounds.

Anhydrous aluminum chloride is used as a catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries, the dyeing industry, and in synthesis of many inorganic and organic compounds.

aluminum hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water, in the paper industry, and as antiperspirants. Sodium aluminate is used in treating water and as an accelerator for drying of cement.

aluminum acetate in solution is used as an astringent.

aluminum phosphate is used to make glass, ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints, varnishes. aluminum hydroxide is used as an antacid, and mordant. It is used also in water purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the waterproofing of fabrics.

aluminum is used in automobiles, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft. aluminum is used in making doors, siding, building wire, sheathing, roofing and other building materials.

Recycling

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Since aluminum needs to be made by electrolysis, it requires a very large amount of electrical power. Recycling aluminum would be much cheaper. That's why recycling plants were opened. The cost of recycling aluminum is much less than the cost of making it from bauxite.

Recycling involves melting the scrap. This is a process that only needs 5% of the energy used to produce Aluminum from ore. But, 15% of the input material part is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).[20] An aluminum stack melter makes a lot less dross, about 1%.[21]

White dross from primary aluminum production and from secondary recycling processes still contains useful amounts of aluminum that can be extracted industrially. The process produces aluminum billets, together with a very complex waste. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which ignites on contact with air.[22] Even with these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete.[23]

Toxicity

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Aluminum is not used in the human body, although it is very common. People debate whether its use in deodorants and water treatment is healthy. Aluminum ions slow down plant growth in acidic soils. Aluminum may be a factor in Alzheimer's disease (a disease when the brain stops working and the patient is confused).[24][25] But the Alzheimer's Society says overwhelming medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminum and Alzheimer's disease.[26]

In most people, aluminum is not as toxic as heavy metals. Aluminum is classified as a non-carcinogen by United States Department of Health and Human Services. There is little proof that normal exposure to aluminum is a risk to healthy adult. There is proof of no toxicity if it is taken in amounts not greater than 40 mg/day per kg of body mass.[27] Most aluminum taken will leave the body in feces. Most of the small part that enters the blood, will be excreted via urine.[28]

aluminum rarely causes vitamin D-resistant osteomalacia, erythropoietin-resistant microcytic anemia, and central nervous system changes. People with kidney insufficiency are at a risk the most. Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminum silicates may result in aluminum binding to the things in the intestines. It also increases the removal of other metals, like iron or zinc. Really high doses (>50 g/day) can cause anemia.

A small percentage of people have contact allergies to aluminum and experience itchy red rashes, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, poor memory, insomnia, depression, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, or other symptoms when touching products containing aluminum.[29]

Exposure to powdered aluminum or aluminum welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis. Fine aluminum powder can also explode.

Ways of exposure

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Food is the main source of aluminum. Drinking water has more aluminum than solid foods.[30] aluminum in food may be absorbed more than aluminum from water. Major sources of human exposure by mouth to aluminum include food (because of its use in food additives, food and beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (because of its use in water treatment), and medicines that have aluminum in it.[31] Very high exposure of aluminum are mostly limited to miners, aluminum production workers, and dialysis patients.[32]

Taking of antacids, antiperspirants, vaccines, and cosmetics give possible ways of exposure.[33] Eating acidic foods or liquids with aluminum increases Aluminum absorption. Maltol has been shown to increase the build up of aluminum in nerve and bone tissues.[34]

Treatment

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In case of suspected sudden consumption of a large amount of aluminum, the only treatment is deferoxamine mesylate. It may be given to help remove aluminum from the body by chelation.[35][36] This should be applied with caution as it not only remove aluminum in the body, but also other metals such as copper or iron.[35]

Environmental effects

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High levels of aluminum occur near mining sites. Small amounts of aluminum are released to the environment at the coal-fired power plants or incinerators. aluminum in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down. But, small particles of aluminum remain in the air for a long time.[28]

Acid rain is the main natural factor to move aluminum from natural sources. It is also the main reason for the effects of aluminum on the environment.[37] The main factor for the presence of aluminum in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminum into air.[38]

In water, aluminum acts as a toxiс agent on animals that with gills like fish by causing loss of plasma- and hemolymph ions leading to osmoregulatory failure.[37]

Aluminum is one of the primary factors that reduce the growth of plants on acidic soils. In acid soils the concentration of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs the growth and function of the root. It is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils.[39][40][41][42] Wheat has developed a tolerance to aluminum. It releases organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminum cations. Sorghum is thought to have the same method of tolerating aluminum.[43]

Aluminum production has its own problems to the environment on each step of the production process. The major problem is the greenhouse gas. These gases are caused by the electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing. The strongest of these gases are perfluorocarbons from the smelting process.[32]

A Spanish scientific report from 2001 claimed that the fungus Geotrichum candidum eats the aluminum in compact discs.[44][45] The better studied bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly found in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosene-based fuels, and laboratory cultures can decompose aluminum.[46] However, these types of bacteria do not eat the aluminum; but rather, the metal is corroded by microbe waste products.[47]

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Pure (white) and impure (yellow) forms of aluminum chloride
A roll of aluminum
Bauxite, aluminum ore
Aluminum cans ready for recycling at Central European Waste Management's plant in Europe
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aluminium.
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References

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  1. ↑ "aluminum". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2nd ed. 1989.
  2. ↑ "Standard Atomic Weights: Aluminium". CIAAW. 2017.
  3. ↑ Unstable carbonyl of Al(0) has been detected in reaction of Al2(CH3)6 with carbon monoxide; see Sanchez, Ramiro; Arrington, Caleb; Arrington Jr., C. A. (December 1, 1989). "Reaction of trimethylaluminum with carbon monoxide in low-temperature matrixes". American Chemical Society. 111 (25): 9110-9111. doi:10.1021/ja00207a023. OSTI 6973516.
  4. ↑ Dohmeier, C.; Loos, D.; Schnöckel, H. (1996). "Aluminum(I) and Gallium(I) Compounds: Syntheses, Structures, and Reactions". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 35 (2): 129–149. doi:10.1002/anie.199601291.
  5. ↑ Tyte, D. C. (1964). "Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide". Nature. 202 (4930): 383. Bibcode:1964Natur.202..383T. doi:10.1038/202383a0. S2CID 4163250.
  6. ↑ Lide, D. R. (2000). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds" (PDF). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 0849304814.
  7. ↑ Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
  8. ↑ Mougeot, X. (2019). "Towards high-precision calculation of electron capture decays". Applied Radiation and Isotopes. 154 (108884). doi:10.1016/j.apradiso.2019.108884.
  9. ↑ D. C. Tyte (1964). "Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide". Nature. 202 (4930): 383. Bibcode:1964Natur.202..383T. doi:10.1038/202383a0.
  10. ↑ Dohmeier, C.; Loos, D.; Schnöckel, H. (1996). "Aluminum(I) and Gallium(I) Compounds: Syntheses, Structures, and Reactions". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 35: 129–149. doi:10.1002/anie.199601291.
  11. ↑ Fontani, Marco; Costa, Mariagrazia; Orna, Mary Virginia (2015). The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-938334-4.
  12. ↑ Venetski, S. (July 1969). "?Silver? from clay". Metallurgist. 13 (7): 451–453. doi:10.1007/BF00741130. ISSN 0026-0894. S2CID 137541986.
  13. ↑ "Ueber das Aluminium". Archiv der Pharmazie. 130 (3): 291–292. 1854. doi:10.1002/ardp.18541300315. ISSN 0365-6233. S2CID 221422959.
  14. ↑ Lodders, Katharina (2003). "Solar System abundances and condensation temperatures of the elements" (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. Part 1. 591 (2). Lodders, K: 1220. Bibcode:2003ApJ...591.1220L. doi:10.1086/375492. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 42498829.
  15. ↑ Clayton, Donald (2003). Handbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos: Hydrogen to Gallium. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53083-5.
  16. ↑ William F McDonough (2011-09-28). "THE COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH" (PDF). MIT.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
  17. ↑ The Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium: Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry. Wade, K.; Banister, A.J. 2016. ISBN 978-1-4831-5322-3.
  18. ↑ Cosmochemical Estimates of Mantle Composition (PDF). Palme, H.; O'Neill, Hugh St. C. 2005.
  19. ↑ Downs, A. J. (1993-05-31). Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-7514-0103-5.
  20. ↑ "Benefits of Recycling". Ohio Department of Natural Resources. Archived from the original on 2003-06-24.
  21. ↑ "Theoretical/Best Practice Energy Use in Metalcasting Operations" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-31.
  22. ↑ "Why are dross & saltcake a concern?". Experts123. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
  23. ↑ Added value of using new industrial waste streams as secondary aggregates in both concrete and asphalt (PDF). Dunster, A.M. 2005. Archived from the original on 2010-04-02. Retrieved 2020-08-28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  24. ↑ Ferreira PC; Piai Kde A; Takayanagui AM; Segura-Muñoz SI (2008). "Aluminum as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease". Rev Lat Am Enfermagem. 16 (1): 151–7. doi:10.1590/S0104-11692008000100023. ISSN 0104-1169. PMID 18392545.
  25. ↑ Rondeau, V.; Jacqmin-Gadda, H.; Commenges, D.; Helmer, C.; Dartigues, J.-F. (2008). "Aluminum and Silica in Drinking Water and the Risk of Alzheimer's Disease or Cognitive Decline: Findings From 15-Year Follow-up of the PAQUID Cohort". American Journal of Epidemiology. 169 (4): 489–96. doi:10.1093/aje/kwn348. PMC 2809081. PMID 19064650.
  26. ↑ Aluminium and Alzheimer's disease, The Alzheimer's Society. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
  27. ↑ Gitelman, H. J. (1998). Physiology of Aluminum in Man. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8247-8026-4. Archived from the original on 2016-05-19.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "ATSDR – Public Health Statement: Aluminum". Archived from the original on 2016-12-12.
  29. ↑ "Aluminum Allergy Symptoms and Diagnosis". Allergy Symptoms. 2016-09-20. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
  30. ↑ Yokel, Robert A.; Hicks, Clair L.; Florence, Rebecca L. (June 2008). "Aluminum bioavailability from basic sodium aluminum phosphate, an approved food additive emulsifying agent, incorporated in cheese". Food and Chemical Toxicology : An International Journal Published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association. 46 (6): 2261–2266. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2008.03.004. ISSN 0278-6915. PMC 2449821. PMID 18436363.
  31. ↑ United States. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, issuing body. Toxicological profile for aluminum. OCLC 832737188.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "Aluminum". The Environmental Literacy Council. Archived from the original on 2020-10-27. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
  33. ↑ Chen, Jennifer K.; Thyssen, Jacob P., eds. (13 April 2018). Metal allergy : from dermatitis to implant and device failure. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-58503-1. OCLC 1031466049.
  34. ↑ van Ginkel, M. F.; van der Voet, G. B.; D'Haese, P. C.; De Broe, M. E.; de Wolff, F. A. (March 1993). "Effect of citric acid and maltol on the accumulation of aluminium in rat brain and bone". The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. 121 (3): 453–460. ISSN 0022-2143. PMID 8445293.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "ARL: Aluminium Toxicity". Archived from the original on 2019-08-31.
  36. ↑ "Aluminium Toxicity". Wayback Machine.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Rosseland, B. O.; Eldhuset, T. D.; Staurnes, M. (March 1990). "Environmental effects of aluminium". Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 12 (1–2): 17–27. doi:10.1007/BF01734045. ISSN 0269-4042. PMID 24202562. S2CID 23714684.
  38. ↑ Dolara, Piero (December 2014). "Occurrence, exposure, effects, recommended intake and possible dietary use of selected trace compounds (aluminium, bismuth, cobalt, gold, lithium, nickel, silver)". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 65 (8): 911–924. doi:10.3109/09637486.2014.937801. ISSN 1465-3478. PMID 25045935. S2CID 43779869.
  39. ↑ Pereira, Luciane Belmonte; Tabaldi, Luciane Almeri; Gonçalves, Jamile Fabbrin; Jucoski, Gládis Oliveira; Pauletto, Mareni Maria; Weis, Simone Nardin; Nicoloso, Fernando Teixeira; Borher, Denise; Rocha, João Batista Teixeira (August 2006). "Effect of aluminium on δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D) and the development of cucumber (Cucumis sativus)". Environmental and Experimental Botany. 57 (1–2): 106–115. doi:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2005.05.004.
  40. ↑ Andersson, Maud (1988). "Toxicity and tolerance of aluminium in vascular plants". Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 39 (3–4). Andersson, Maud: 439–462. Bibcode:1988WASP...39..439A. doi:10.1007/BF00279487. S2CID 82896081.
  41. ↑ Horst, Walter J. (1995). "The role of the apoplast in aluminium toxicity and resistance of higher plants: A review". Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde (in German). 158 (5): 419–428. doi:10.1002/jpln.19951580503.[permanent dead link]
  42. ↑ Ma, Jian Feng; Ryan, Peter R; Delhaize, Emmanuel (June 2001). "Aluminium tolerance in plants and the complexing role of organic acids". Trends in Plant Science. 6 (6): 273–278. doi:10.1016/S1360-1385(01)01961-6. PMID 11378470.
  43. ↑ Magalhaes, Jurandir V.; Garvin, David F.; Wang, Yihong; Sorrells, Mark E.; Klein, Patricia E.; Schaffert, Robert E.; Li, Li; Kochian, Leon V. (August 2004). "Comparative Mapping of a Major Aluminium Tolerance Gene in Sorghum and Other Species in the Poaceae". Genetics. 167 (4): 1905–1914. doi:10.1534/genetics.103.023580. ISSN 0016-6731. PMC 1471010. PMID 15342528.
  44. ↑ Bosch, Xavier (2001-06-27). "Fungus eats CD". Nature. doi:10.1038/news010628-11. ISSN 1476-4687.
  45. ↑ "Fungus 'eats' CDs". 2001-06-22. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
  46. ↑ "Studies on the 'Kerosene Fungus' Cladosporium Resinae (Lindau) De Vries — Part I. The Problem of Microbial Contamination of Aviation Fuels | NZETC". nzetc.victoria.ac.nz. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
  47. ↑ "Aircraft Fuel System Contamination & Starvation | Intelligence". 2015-02-25. Archived from the original on 2015-02-25. Retrieved 2020-08-28.

Other websites

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Periodic table
H   He
Li Be   B C N O F Ne
Na Mg   Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca   Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr   Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Lanthanides Actinides Transition metals Poor metals Metalloids Other nonmetals Halogens Noble gases
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