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Antisemitism in Europe

From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Antisemitism,[1] also known as Judeophobia,[2] has a long history in Europe.[3] The worst instance of antisemitism in Europe's history is the Holocaust.[4] The adjective of antisemitism is antisemitic. Those who hold antisemitic views are called antisemites.[5]

Overview

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Map of expulsions of Jews from various European regions, ca. 1100–1600.
Main articles: Jews § History, Inquisition, and Spanish Inquisition

20th Century

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Main articles: Pogrom and The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) shaking hands with Alberto Vassallo-Torregrossa (1865–1959), a high-ranking Vatican clergy in Bavaria, Nazi Germany.

The Holocaust

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Main articles: The Holocaust, Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, and List of Nazi concentration camps
Further information: Nazism, Mein Kampf, Kristallnacht, and Babi Yar
A poster from the Nazi puppet state Slovak Republic (1939–1945): "Do not be a servant to the Jew: he who associates with a Jew will sink down to his level."

The Holocaust was a genocide[6] committed by Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945 during World War II. It was known as the Final Solution. The Nazis' plan was to rid Europe of Jews. They succeeded in killing up to 67% of Jews – at least 6,000,000.[4] The planning of the Holocaust was rooted in antisemitism.[4][7]

21st century

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In a 2013 survey of 5,847 Jews in Europe, 76% thought that antisemitism had increased in the previous five years, while 29% had thought about moving countries as they felt unsafe.[8] A 2023 ADL survey found that as many as one-third of Western Europeans believed in stereotypes of Jews. This was reportedly worse in some eastern European countries, particularly Hungary (37%), Poland (35%) and Russia (26%).[9] In Eastern Europe, the level of antisemitism is found to be high.[10] The cause of persistent antisemitism in Europe is under debate.[11][12]

Antisemitism in Europe (Polling agency: ADL)[13]
Country % population holding biases against Jews
(95% confidence level)[13]
Greece 69 69
 
Armenia 58 58
 
Poland 45 45
 
Bulgaria 44 44
 
Serbia 42 42
 
Hungary 41 41
 
Belarus 38 38
 
France 37 37
 
Azerbaijan 37 37
 
Lithuania 36 36
 
Romania 35 35
 
Croatia 33 33
 
Bosnia and Herzegovina 32 32
 
Georgia 32 32
 
Russia 30 30
 
Moldova 30 30
 
Spain 29 29
 
Montenegro 29 29
 
Latvia 28 28
 
Austria 28 28
 
Slovenia 27 27
 
Belgium 27 27
 
Germany 27 27
 
Switzerland 26 26
 
Estonia 22 22
 
Portugal 21 21
 
Ireland 20 20
 
Italy 20 20
 
Iceland 16 16
 
Norway 15 15
 
Finland 15 15
 
Czech Republic 13 13
 
Denmark 9 9
 
United Kingdom 8 8
 
Netherlands 5 5
 
Sweden 4 4
 

Croatia

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20th century

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Main articles: Ante Pavelić, Ustaše, and Independent State of Croatia

21st century

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Croatian Wikipedia

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See the main article: Croatian Wikipedia

Between 2009 and 2021, Croatian Wikipedia was controlled by a group of far-right administrators who promoted Holocaust denial by censoring[14][15] the war crimes of the pro-Nazi Ustaše-ruled Independent State of Croatia (NDH)[16] and blocking dozens of rule-abiding users for trying to remove the false content.[14]

Željko Jovanović, the Minister of Science of Croatia back then, also advised against the use of the Croatian Wikipedia.[17] The most serious violation by the far-right administrators was their anti-historical designation of the Jasenovac concentration camp, in which 77,000–99,000 were killed,[18] as a "collection camp".[14] Their Holocaust denial was condemned by scholars, officials, advocacy groups and media critics.[14]

Following a year-long investigation (2020–21) by the Wikimedia Foundation, several complicit users and administrators were either banned or demoted, with one of the administrators found to have consolidated his or her power with 80 sockpuppet accounts.[19]

Ireland

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See the main article: Antisemitism in Ireland
The banner of the pro-Nazi antisemitic[20] Irish Catholic Blueshirts.
Pro-Nazi antisemitic[20] Irish Catholic Blueshirts marching down the street.

Overview

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Ireland has been predominantly Catholic throughout history.[21] Just as other Catholic countries, antisemitism is deep-rooted in Ireland.[21]

Modern period

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As per specialized historians, Irish Catholics played an active role in the Catholic Spanish Inquisition's persecution of Jews (1478–1834),[22] killing as many as 300,000 Jews over false charges of "crypto-Judaism",[23][24] a charge slapped on Jews who were forcibly converted to Catholicism.[23][24]

20th century

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Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, pro-Nazi sentiment was common among the Irish due to their dislike of the United Kingdom,[25] which was fighting Nazi Germany.[25]

World War II

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In July 1940, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) praised Nazi Germany as the "friends and liberators of the Irish people" in a statement, with little to no opposition from the Irish public.[25][26] Meanwhile, the IRA worked with Nazi spies to plot attacks on British troops in Northern Ireland[25][26] and circulated materials accusing Éamon de Valera's neutral Irish government of being owned by "Jews and Freemasons".[25][26]

As per declassified MI5 documents, IRA leading figures Seán Russell and James O'Donovan – both veterans of the Irish War of Independence – were the main Irish contacts with Nazi Germany.[25][26] They got Nazi weapons, plotted joint attacks on British troops and discussed with Hitler a possible German invasion of Northern Ireland to facilitate Irish "reunification".[25][26]

As per Kurt Haller, an anti-Nazi German diplomat who testified in the Nuremberg Trials,[26]

James O'Donovan [...] asked for German support for the occupation of Northern Ireland [. ...] seemed most interested in obtaining delivery of weapons, ammunition and explosives.

As per Erwin von Lahousen, a Nazi German general who also testified,[26]

Frank Ryan[27] suggest that the German invasion of Britain would be an opportune moment for the seizure of Northern Ireland [. ...] Ryan had told [Edmund] Veesenmayer[28] that [Éamon] de Valera would support [...] provided he considered it a legitimate risk to take.

After Adolf Hitler's death on April 30, 1945, Éamon de Valera, the Prime Minister of Ireland, mourned the death of Hitler[25][29] with backing from the Irish parliament.[25][29] De Valera also denied reports of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp as "anti-national propaganda", reportedly out of refusal to acknowledge that the Jews could have suffered more than the Irish.[30]

21st century

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2010s

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Further information: Disinformation, Conspiracy theory, and African Americans § History

Since 2013,[31][32] a baseless theory, which claims that "Irish slaves" existed in 17th century North America before the arrival of African slaves, has been made popular by Neo-Nazis and Holocaust deniers[31][32] in both Ireland and the United States.[31][32] The theory is sometimes called the "Irish slaves myth". The myth reportedly originated from the book To Hell Or Barbados: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland written by Irish journalist Seán O'Callaghan (1918–2000)[31][33] and published by The O'Brien Press in Dublin, Ireland.[33]

The myth has been widely condemned by scholars as a far-right conspiracy theory downplaying the suffering of African Americans in history,[31][32] who were enslaved until 1865, segregated until 1965 and systemically discriminated against until now.[34] Despite To Hell Or Barbados: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland promoting the widely condemned far-right myth, the book is still on sale in the Sinn Féin Bookshop[35] run by the Irish nationalist Sinn Féin party.[35][36]

2020s

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In spring 2024, antisemitism in Ireland reportedly worsened with the Israel–Hamas war's escalation, where antisemites felt justified to harass Jews under the guise of supporting Palestine, and some Irish Jewish community leaders were doubtful if Ireland was still safe[37] for the approximately 2,700 Jews – 0.054% of the 2023 Irish population[38] – in Ireland. In November 2024, it was revealed that textbooks teaching that

  • the Jews "killed Jesus"
  • Israel was "uniquely aggressive"
  • the Auschwitz was a "prisoner of war camp" rather than an extermination camp
  • Judaism "believed that violence and war are sometimes necessary"

were widely circulated in Irish schools[39] and shaping children's mind.[39] The findings were confirmed by the European Jewish Congress (EJC).[40] Meanwhile, the Government of Ireland has not responded to the matter, nor have any strong reactions been seen from the Irish public.[39]

Critique

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David Collier, an Irish researcher in Middle East affairs,[41] noted that antisemitism among contemporary Irish is derived from[41]

Spain

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Further information: Inquisition and Spanish Inquisition

Middle Ages

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Under the rule of Henry III of Castile and León (1390–1406), Jews were made to pick either baptism or death in the Iberian territories reconquered.[45]

Modern period

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A 1930 Spanish reprint of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, an influential hoax text alleging a Jewish conspiracy to control the world.

From 1478 to 1834, the Catholic Spanish Empire unleashed a systematic campaign of persecution of Jews, historically known as the Spanish Inquisition,[23][24] due to its racist belief that Jews who converted to Catholicism (conversos) were mostly faking as Christians,[23][24] including those forcibly converted following the Alhambra Decree, or the Edict of Expulsion.[23][45] As many as 300,000 Jews under Catholic Spanish rule were killed over false charges of "crypto-Judaism",[23][24] a charge slapped on Jews who were forcibly converted.[23][24]

21st century

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A graffiti on Calle del Doctor Luis Calandre in Cartagena, Spain, where the COVID-19 pandemic was depicted as a corona-mentira ("corona-lie") created by Jews symbolized by the Star of David.

For the past decade, movements within Spain have emerged to rewrite the history of the Spanish Inquisition.[46] Members of the movements released a series of books, films, TV programs and mobile exhibitions[46] to beautify the Inquisition-associated Spanish history.[46]

In 2023, an ADL poll found that 26% of Spain's population held extensive antisemitic beliefs,[47] followed by Belgium (24%), France (17%), Germany (12%) and the UK (10%).[47]

In 2024, Spanish Jews make up 0.093% of Spain's population of 48,370,000. In April, the Observatory for Religious Freedom and Conscience found that at least 36 attacks had happened to Spanish Jews between 7 October 2023 and 19 April 2024, about six attacks per month.[48] In July, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights found that 78% of Spanish Jews saw antisemitism as a big problem in Spain.[49]

France

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See the main article: Antisemitism in France

Classical antiquity

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Jews have been living in France since the Roman times as one of the oldest diasporas in Europe. As France became Christianized in the late antiquity, Christian antisemitism shaped the region's culture.[50]

Middle Ages

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Massacre of Jewish people in Metz (Holy Roman Empire) during the First Crusade.
A miniature from the Grandes Chroniques de France depicting the expulsion of Jews from France in 1182. This is a photograph of an exhibit at the Diaspora Museum, Tel Aviv.

Under the Germanic Frankish Merovingian dynasty between the 5th and 8th century, Jews were banned from working as public servants.[50] A succession of ecumenical councils also banned Jews from socializing with Christians and observing the shabbat over the unfounded fear that Judaism (the Jewish ethnoreligion) would influence Christians.[50]

11th century

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Systematic persecutions of Jews intensified in the 11th century under the Capetian dynasty, when the King of France Robert the Pious attempted to kill all Jews who rejected Christian conversion.[50][51] Jews across the France were assaulted, tortured or burned at stakes.[50][51] The persecutions coincided with the destruction of the original Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in 1009, which was exploited by the French Benedictine monk Rodulfus Glaber to spread rumors about Jewish "involvement" to add fuel to the fire.[52]

When the First Crusade happened in 1096, Jews were massacred by the crusaders across the Kingdom of France,[51][52] The events were seen by some historians as genocidal massacres, the first batch in a series of which ultimately peaked in the Holocaust.[53] The massacres all happened with the Roman Catholic Church's tacit approval.[52][53]

Between the 1182 and 1394, at least 13 expulsion campaigns of Jews were ordered by the French monarchy,[54] during which dozens of Black Death-associated massacres of Jews happened.[55]

Modern period

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Between the 15th century and 18th century, antisemitism in France waxed and waned.[56] Voltaire (1694–1778), a famous French philosopher, held biases against Jews that contributed to the legitimization of modern antisemitism in Western academia.[57][58] One of the instances of Voltaire's vocal antisemitism was his insertion of an insult into his Dictionnaire philosophique for Jewish readers:[57]

You are calculating animals; try to be thinking animals.

Despite Voltaire's vocal antisemitism, he was regarded as the champion of Enlightenment by Western leftists.[58]

19th century

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Front page of Edouard Drumont's La Libre Parole (1893) with a caricature of a Jew grabbing the globe, implying their alleged desire to control the world. Caption: "Their Homeland".
"The Aryan breaks the chains of the Jew and the Freemason that held him captive", an 1897 satire by French journalist Augustin-Joseph Jacquet, later used by the Nazi puppet state Vichy France (1940–44) in its propaganda.
"I accuse...!" (J'accuse...!), open letter published on 13 January 1898 in the newspaper L'Aurore by French writer Émile Zola, accusing the French president Félix Faure of anti-Semitism and unlawful jailing of Alfred Dreyfus, pointing out judicial errors and lack of serious evidence.

Antisemitism was widespread in 19th century France.[50] It was present across the political spectrum, with ancient stereotypes being phrased differently and perpetuated by their respective audience.[59] On both sides of the spectrum, Jews were targeted for their otherness, observance of Judaism and alleged lack of loyalty or assimilation.[59]

Among the French far left, Jews were accused of being regressive agents of capitalism exploiting the French proletariat.[59] Among the French far right, Jews were accused of being subversive agents of communism undermining the traditional Catholic culture.[59] Meanwhile, both the far left and far right saw Jews as undesirable under French nationalism, which prioritized national unity over minority existence.[59][60]

Between 1882 and 1885, three antisemitic publications existed in France: L'Anti-Juif, L'Anti-Sémitique, and Le Péril sociale.[50] In 1886, French politician Edouard Drumont published the 1,200-page tract La France juive ("Jewish France"), accusing Jews of masterminding capitalism, and calling for a race war between non-Jewish "Aryans" and Jewish "Semites". The tract was very popular in France and reprinted for 140 times within the first two years of publication.[57]

The wave of antisemitism peaked in the deeply divisive Dreyfus affair in 1894, when Alfred Dreyfus, an Alsatian Jewish artillery officer, was falsely convicted of treason.[60] Dreyfus was not vindicated until 1906.[59][60]

20th century

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World War II

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A display at a March 1942 Vichy French exhibition alleging Jewish control of the USSR, SFIO and Western Allies.
French Jews forced to wear yellow stars in public, Paris, June 1942.

On 22 June 1940, France surrendered to Nazi Germany upon military defeat and was partitioned into the German-occupied zone, Italian-occupied zone and Vichy France – a rump state in southern France managed by pro-Nazi French collaborators.[61] Under Vichy France's leaders Philippe Pétain and Pierre Laval, the Statut des Juifs ("Jewish Statute") – modelled after the Nazi German Nuremberg Laws – was passed between October 1940 and June 1941 to ban Jews from all jobs.[61]

Just as in Nazi Germany, such legal persecution escalated to the deportation of Jews to extermination camps,[61] one of the worst instances of which was the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup on 16–17 July 1942 voluntarily conducted by the Vichy French police.[61] In total, 77,000 (33%) Jews living in France were killed in extermination camps.[4][61]

Post-war period

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Flag of the neo-fascist L'Œuvre Française ("The French Work") movement, founded by antisemite Pierre Sidos in 1968 and banned in 2013.
Flag of the neo-fascist Les Nationalistes ("The Nationalists") founded in 2015 as a successor to the L'Œuvre Française.

Antisemitism in post-war France mainly took the form of Holocaust denial and radical anti-Zionism. Pierre Guillaume, an ultra-left activist deemed an "anarcho-Marxist", published books denying the Holocaust as a "distraction from class struggle playing into the hands of Zionism and Stalinism."[62]

Guillaume's views were co-opted by the French far right,[62] sharing similar radical anti-Zionism, comparing the Holocaust to the Judean massacres of the Canaanites[62] or the Native American genocide,[63] and accusing Jews of exploiting the Holocaust to extort compensations from European countries.[64]

A number of influential French Holocaust deniers emerged, such as Claude Autant-Lara,[63] Maurice Bardèche,[64] Louis-Ferdinand Céline,[65] Paul Rassinier,[66] François Duprat,[67] Serge Thion,[68] Robert Faurisson,[69] Dieudonné M'bala M'bala[70] and Jean-François Jalkh.[71]

21st century

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Antisemitism is still common in 21st century France,[72] with Jews and synagogues regularly attacked.[72] A report by Tel Aviv University and the ADL found a spike in antisemitic incidents from 436 in 2022 to 1,676 in 2023, 74% of which happened following 7 October 2023.[73] As per the Statista, 57.4% of 2023 antisemitic incidents happened in Paris.[74]

One of the most serious antisemitic incidents involved a 12-year-old Jewish girl being gang-raped by several boys hurling antisemitic insults and death threats.[75] Some French Jews reported the need to adopt fake names and wear keffiyehs to pretend as Muslims in order to minimize danger.[76]

Poland

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See the main article: Racism in Poland § Jews
Further information: Jedwabne pogrom (1941)

Romania

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Main articles: Iași pogrom and Odessa massacre (1941)
Further information: Ion Antonescu and Iron Guard

Armenia

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The flag of the pro-Nazi Armenian-Aryan Racialist Movement (AARM).
The logo of the Marxist-Leninist militant[77] front Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA).

Overview

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58% of the population[13] of Armenia[78][79] (a Caucasian country allied with Russia,[80] China,[81] Iran[82] and Syria under Bashar al-Assad[83] who killed over 400,000 Syrians[84][85]) are found to be hostile to Jews, including 62% of those aged 18–34. The percentages are the highest in Eastern Europe, making Armenia statistically the most antisemitic Eastern European country.[13] Garegin Nzhdeh (1886–1955), an Armenian nationalist who recruited thousands of Armenians to fight for Nazi Germany, is still popular among Armenians.[86][87]

20th century

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From the 1930s through the Holocaust, Armenian-American media, including but not limited to the Hairenik,[88][89] fully backed Adolf Hitler and defended the Holocaust as a "necessary surgical operation" by demonizing Jews as "poisonous elements",[88][89] while 20,000 Armenian Nazi volunteers[89][90] hunted for Jews and other "undesirables" on behalf of the Nazi German army.[89][91]

21st century

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Despite such history, hundreds of statues have been erected across Armenia in honor of Garegin Nzhdeh.[86][87] Meanwhile, the only synagogue in Armenia's capital Yerevan was attacked four times in a row between 7 October 2023 and 11 June 2024.[92] Members of the Marxist-Leninist militant[77] front Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia[93] (ASALA) claimed responsibility for the attacks, some of which involved the synagogue being set on fire.[94]

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References

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  1. ↑ "Working Definition Of Antisemitism". World Jewish Congress. Retrieved October 22, 2024.
    IHRA Working Definition of Antisemitism :
  2. ↑
  3. ↑
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3
  5. ↑
  6. ↑
  7. ↑
  8. ↑ "Discrimination and hate crime against Jews in EU Member States: experiences and perceptions of antisemitism" (PDF). European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. 2013. Retrieved December 2, 2024.
  9. ↑ "ADL Survey Finds Harmful Antisemitic Stereotypes Remain Deeply Entrenched Across Europe". Anti-Defamation League (ADL). May 31, 2023. Retrieved December 3, 2024.
  10. ↑
  11. ↑
  12. ↑
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3
  15. ↑
  16. ↑ "The Holocaust in Croatia". Yad Vashem. Retrieved October 24, 2024.
  17. ↑ "Jovanović: Djeco, ne baratajte hrvatskom Wikipedijom jer su sadržaji falsificirani" [Jovanović: "Children, do not use the Croatian Wikipedia because its contents are forgeries"]. Novi list (in Croatian). September 13, 2013. Retrieved September 13, 2013.
  18. ↑
  19. ↑ "Croatian Wikipedia Disinformation Assessment-2021 – Meta". Meta Wikimedia. Retrieved 2021-06-14. Many articles created and edited by the members of this group present the views that match political and socio-cultural positions advocated by a loosely connected group of Croatian radical right political parties and ultra-conservative populist movements. The group has been using its positions of power to attract new like-minded contributors, silence and ban dissenters, manipulate community elections and subvert Wikipedia's and the broader movement's native conflict resolution mechanisms.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1
  22. ↑
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 25.7 25.8
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6
  27. ↑ A deputy of James O'Donovan.
  28. ↑ An SS leader convicted of crimes against humanity for contributing to the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Serbia and the pro-Nazi Independent State of Croatia (NDH).
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1
  30. ↑ Bew, Paul (February 12, 2009). Ireland: The Politics of Enmity 1789-2006. Oxford University Press Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199561261.001.0001. ISBN 9780199561261. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "About Sean O'Callaghan". The O'Brien Press. Retrieved December 17, 2024.
  34. ↑
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "To Hell or Barbados - The Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland". Sinn Féin Bookshop. Retrieved December 18, 2024.
  36. ↑
  37. ↑
  38. ↑ "How many Jews live in Ireland? | JPR". Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR). Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2
  40. ↑ "Report reveals troubling pattern of Holocaust minimisation in Irish textbooks". European Jewish Congress (EJC). November 6, 2024. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "David Collier: What Explains Ireland's Extreme Antisemitism?". Middle East Forum. September 12, 2022. Retrieved December 6, 2024.
  42. ↑
  43. ↑
  44. ↑
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "Five Things to Know About Antisemitism in Spain". American Jewish Committee (AJC). May 4, 2023. Retrieved December 24, 2024.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 Jones, Sam (April 29, 2018). "Spain fights to dispel legend of Inquisition and imperial atrocities". The Guardian. Retrieved December 24, 2024. Campaigners want to reclaim the country's past from 'distorted propaganda'
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 "Antisemitism is deeply ingrained in European society, says EU official". The Guardian. October 30, 2023. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  48. ↑ "36 attacks in 6 months against Jews in Spain, with a government praised by Hamas". Contando Estrelas. April 22, 2024. Retrieved December 25, 2024.
  49. ↑ Grave-Lazie, Lidar (November 21, 2024). "Is it safe to be Jewish in Spain?". Ynetnews. Retrieved December 24, 2024.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 50.4 50.5 50.6
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 MacCalloch, Diarmaid (September 2, 2010). A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (1 ed.). Penguin Books. ISBN 9780141021898. Retrieved December 25, 2024.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 Bokenkotter, Thomas (1979). Concise History of the Catholic Church. Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group. ISBN 9780385130158. Retrieved December 25, 2024.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1
  54. ↑ Lindemann, Albert S.; Levy, Richard S. (October 28, 2010). Antisemitism: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 75. ISBN 9780199235032. Retrieved December 25, 2024.
  55. ↑ Marshall, John (2006). John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture. The Johns Hopkins University. ISBN 9780521651141. Retrieved December 25, 2024.
  56. ↑ Hyman, Paula E. (1998). The Jews of Modern France. Vol. 1 (1 ed.). University of California Press. doi:10.2307/jj.2711646. JSTOR jj.2711646. Retrieved December 25, 2024.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 59.3 59.4 59.5 Beller, Steven (October 22, 2015). Antisemitism: A Very Short Introduction (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780198724834.001.0001. ISBN 9780191792335. Retrieved December 25, 2024. Published in print: 29 October 2015. Print ISBN: 9780198724834.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 61.4
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 "Dans le mensuel "Globe" les propos antisémites de M. Claude Autant-Lara député européen". Le Monde. September 8, 1989. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Levy; Donahue, William Collins; Madigan, Kevin; Morse, Jonathan; Shevitz, Amy Hill; Stillman, Norman A.; Bell, Dean Phillip (2005). "Bardèche, Maurice (1909–1998)". Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781851094394. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  65. ↑ "Manuscripts of pro-Nazi French author rediscovered after 78 years missing". Euronews. May 4, 2022. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  66. ↑ Reid, Donald (March 29, 2022). "Holocaust denial, Le Vicaire, and the absent presence of Nadine Fresco and Paul Rassinier in Jorge Semprún's La Montagne blanche". French Cultural Studies. 33 (3). doi:10.1177/09571558221078450. Retrieved December 26, 2024. Open access
  67. ↑ Igounet, Valérie (May 8, 1998). "Holocaust denial is part of a strategy". Le Monde diplomatique. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  68. ↑ Berman, Paul (April 26, 2018). "The Grand Theorist of Holocaust Denial, Robert Faurisson". Tablet Magazine. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  69. ↑
  70. ↑ "Comic Dieudonne given jail sentence for anti-Semitism". BBC News. November 25, 2015. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  71. ↑ Saeed, Saim (April 27, 2017). "New National Front leader in Nazi gas chamber row". Politico. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1
  73. ↑ Neifakh, Veronica (November 14, 2024). "Antisemitism Exploding: 'Every Jew in France Faced With Prospect of Leaving Country'". The Media Line. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  74. ↑ "Anti-Semitic acts in French cities 2023". Statista. July 4, 2024. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  75. ↑
  76. ↑ Davidson, Colette (October 17, 2024). "Amid fresh wave of antisemitism, some French Jews resort to fake names". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1
  78. ↑
  79. ↑
  80. ↑
  81. ↑
  82. ↑
  83. ↑
  84. ↑
  85. ↑
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 "New Congressional document exposes Armenian Dashnaks' sympathies for Hitler and Holocaust". Azərtac. May 14, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2024.
  89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 89.2 89.3 "Pro-Holocaust Movement Tried to Lure Los Angeles Jews To Side With Armenia". NewsBlaze News. May 19, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2024.
  90. ↑ Thomassian, Levon (2012). Summer of '42: A Study of German-Armenian Relations During the Second World War (1 ed.). Schiffer Publishing Ltd. ISBN 9780764340451. Retrieved December 5, 2024.
  91. ↑ Gurevich, Roman (October 26, 2020). "Living in Azerbaijan as a Jew versus being Jewish in Armenia". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved December 5, 2024.
  92. ↑ "Yerevan's Lone Synagogue Attacked For Fourth Time In A Year". Radio Liberty. June 11, 2024. Retrieved December 2, 2024. Yerevan's only synagogue was attacked again on June 10 when perpetrators threw rocks through a window.
  93. ↑
    • Armenian: Հայաստանի ազատագրության հայ գաղտնի բանակ
    • Azerbaijani: Ermənistanın Azadlığı üçün Gizli Erməni Ordusu
    • Georgian: სომხეთის გათავისუფლების სომხური საიდუმლო არმია
    • Greek: Μυστικός Αρμενικός Στρατός για την απελευθέρωση της Αρμενίας
  94. ↑
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